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centre of scholarly research and inspired teaching. The students were quickly swept into the New Culture Movement. A proposal by Hu Shih (Hu Shi), a former student of the American philosopher John Dewey, that literature be written in the vernacular language (baihua) rather than the classical style won quick acceptance. By 1918 most of the contributors to
Xinqingnian were writing in baihua, and other journals and newspapers soon followed suit. Students at Peking University began their own reform journal, Xinchao (“New Tide”). A new experimental literature inspired by Western forms became highly popular, and scores of new literary journals were founded.
Riots and Protests
On May 4, 1919, patriotic students in Beijing protested the decision at the Paris Peace Conference that Japan should retain defeated Germany’s rights and possessions in Shandong. Many students were arrested in the rioting that followed. Waves of protest spread throughout the major cities of China. Merchants closed their shops, banks suspended business, and workers went on strike to pressure the government. Finally, the government was forced to release the arrested students, to dismiss some officials charged with being tools of Japan, and to refuse to sign the Treaty of Versailles. This outburst helped spread the iconoclastic and reformist ideas of the intellectual movement, which became known as the May Fourth Movement. By the early 1920s,
China was launched on a new revolutionary path.
The interwar years (1920–37)
Beginnings
of a National Revolution
This new revolution was led by the Nationalist Party (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
The Nationalist Party
The Nationalist Party had its origins in the earlier United League (Tongmenghui) against the Qing dynasty. The name Nationalist Party was adopted in 1912. After the suppression of this expanded party by Yuan Shikai, elements from it were organized by Sun Yat-sen in 1914 into the Chinese Revolutionary Party, which failed to generate widespread support. Sun and a small group of veterans were stimulated by the patriotic upsurge of 1919 to rejuvenate this political tradition, as well as to revive the Nationalist Party name. The party’s publications took on new life as the editors entered the current debates on what was needed to “save China.” Socialism was popular among Sun’s followers.
The formation of an effective party took several years, however. Sun returned to Guangzhou from Shanghai late in 1920, when Gen. Chen Jiongming (Ch’en Chiung-ming) drove out the Guangxi militarists. Another rump parliament
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elected Sun president of a new southern regime, which claimed to be the legitimate government of China. In the spring of 1922 Sun attempted to launch a northern campaign as an ally of the Manchurian warlord, Zhang Zuolin (Chang Tso-lin), against the Zhili clique, which by now controlled Beijing. Chen, however, did not want the provincial revenues wasted in internecine wars. One of Chen’s subordinates drove Sun from the presidential residence in Guangzhou on the night of June 15–16, 1922. Sun took refuge with the southern navy, and he retired to Shanghai on August 9. He was able to return to Guangzhou in February 1923 and began to consolidate a base under his own control and to rebuild his party.
The Chinese Communist Party
The CCP grew directly from the May Fourth Movement. Its leaders and early members were professors and students who came to believe that China needed a social revolution and who began to see Soviet Russia as a model. Chinese students in Japan and France had earlier studied socialist doctrines and the ideas of Karl Marx, but the Russian Revolution of 1917 stimulated a fresh interest in keeping with the enthusiasm of the period for radical ideologies. Li Dazhao, the librarian of Peking University, and Chen Duxiu were the CCP’s cofounders.
In March 1920 word reached China of Soviet Russia’s revolutionary foreign policy enunciated in the first Karakhan Manifesto, which promised to give up all
special rights gained by tsarist Russia at China’s expense and to return the Russianowned Chinese Eastern Railway in Manchuria without compensation. The contrast between this promise and the Versailles award to Japan that had touched off the 1919 protest demonstrations could hardly have been more striking. Although the Soviet government later denied such a promise and attempted to regain control of the railway, the impression of this first statement and the generosity still offered in a more diplomatic second Karakhan Manifesto of September 1920 left a favourable image of Soviet foreign policy among Chinese patriots.
Russia set up an international communist organization, the Comintern, in 1919 and sent Grigory N. Voytinsky to China the next year. Voytinsky met Li Dazhao in Beijing and Chen Duxiu in Shanghai, and they organized the Socialist Youth League, laid plans for the Communist Party, and started recruiting young intellectuals. By the spring of 1921 there were about 50 members in various Chinese cities and in Japan, many of them former students who had been active in the 1919 demonstrations. Mao Zedong, a protégé of Li Dazhao, had started one such group in Changsha. The CCP held its First Congress in Shanghai in July 1921, with 12 or 13 attendants and with a Dutch communist—Hendricus Sneevliet, who used his Comintern name, Maring, in China—and a Russian serving as advisers. Maring had become head of a new bureau of the Comintern in China, and he had arrived in Shanghai in June
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Mao Zedong. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
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1921. At the First Congress, Chen Duxiu was chosen to head the party.
The CCP spent the next two years recruiting, publicizing Marxism and the need for a national revolution directed against foreign imperialism and Chinese militarism, and organizing unions among railway and factory workers. Maring was instrumental in bringing the KMT and the CCP together in a national revolutionary movement. A number of young men were sent to Russia for training. Among the CCP members were many students who had worked and studied in France, where
they had gained experience in the French labour movement and with the French Communist Party; Zhou Enlai was one of these. Other recruits were students influenced by the Japanese socialist movement. By 1923 the party had some 300 members, with perhaps 3,000 to 4,000 in the ancillary Socialist Youth League.
Communist-Nationalist
Cooperation
By then, however, the CCP was in serious difficulty. The railway unions had been
Mao Zedong
The Chinese Marxist theorist, soldier, and statesman Mao Zedong (b. Dec. 26, 1893—d. Sept. 9, 1976) led China’s communist revolution and served as chairman of the People’s Republic of China (1949–59) and chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP; 1931–76). The son of a peasant, Mao joined the revolutionary army that overthrew the Qing dynasty but, after six months as a soldier, left to acquire more education. At Peking University he met Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu, founders of the CCP, and in 1921 he committed himself to Marxism. At that time, Marxist thought held that revolution lay in the hands of urban workers, but in 1925 Mao concluded that in China it was the peasantry, not the urban proletariat, that had to be mobilized. He became chairman of a Chinese Soviet Republic formed in rural Jiangxi province; its Red Army withstood repeated attacks from Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist army but at last undertook the Long March to a more secure position in northwestern China. There Mao became the undisputed head of the CCP. Guerrilla warfare tactics, appeals to the local population’s nationalist sentiments, and Mao’s agrarian policies gained the party military advantages against their Nationalist and Japanese enemies and broad support among the peasantry. Mao’s agrarian Marxism di«ered from the Soviet model, but, when the communists succeeded in taking power in China in 1949, the Soviet Union agreed to provide the new state with technical assistance. However, Mao’s Great Leap Forward and his criticism of “new bourgeois elements” in the Soviet Union and China alienated the Soviet Union irrevocably; Soviet aid was withdrawn in 1960. Mao followed the failed Great Leap Forward with the Cultural Revolution, also considered to have been a disastrous mistake. After Mao’s death, Deng Xiaoping began introducing social and economic reforms.