Interviews

Researchers may also use the interview (sometimes called an interview-survey), which is a questionnaire, administered personally to the subject by the researcher. Interviews are especially useful if the items have an open-ended format because the researcher can ask follow-up questions, both to probe a bit more deeply and to clarify the subject’s responses. The researcher must be careful not to influence these responses, however. Sometimes even raising an eyebrow as someone begins to answer a question can be enough to change a response. The advantage of an interview is that a subject is more likely to complete a questionnaire in the presence of a researcher. One disadvantage is that tracking people down is often a difficult job, and more than one attempt may be necessary. Another is that if all subjects do not live in the same area, the costs of conducting research in this way can become extremely high.

Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:

strategy, logic, specific, absolute, typically, hypothesis, series, preference, private, category, analyzing, technique

Task 2. Answer the following questions:

1. What is defined by a method?

2. What kind of method is an experiment?

3. What are experiments based on?

4. How would you define a hypothesis?

5. What is the goal of an experiment?

6. What steps does the experiment involve?

7. Where is it better to conduct an experiment?

8. In what way would you characterize a survey?

9. What research may be conducted by means of a survey?

10. What is a questionnaire?

11. What kinds of questionnaires may there be?

12. What is the difference between these two types?

13. What is meant by a self-administered survey?

14. What is an interview?

15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of an interview?

16. Enumerate all methods of sociological research. Which of them do you consider to be the most productive? Give your reasons.

Task 3. Characterize each method of sociological research.

Task 4. Make up a questionnaire on the topic “Who is the leading personality in the country?”

Task 5. Develop the following situations:

1. You are asked to carry out a public opinion poll. What would you start with?

2. What would you recommend to the beginners in carrying out an interview?

Task 6. Find in the text English equivalents for:

проводить исследования; в абсолютном смысле; лучше или хуже; сильные стороны и слабые; переменная; с учетом; испытуемые; во многих случаях; набор ответов; совершенно свободно; ставящий в тупик; по почте; слишком поздно; преимущество; недостаток

Task 7. Arrange the following words into pairs of synonyms:

1. research a) to carry out

2. method b)especially

3. to conduct c) typically

4. to vary d) to select

5. definite e) technique

6. particularly f) certain

7. cause g) to take place

8. to occur h) effect

9. generally i) to appear

10. aim j) investigation

11. result k) to differ

12.to choose l) reason

13. important m) goal

14. to emerge n) significant

Task 8. Translate the following sentences into Russian taking into account the meanings of: in relation to; with regard to; with respect to

1. He treated this phenomenon in relation to the extreme environmental conditions.

2. They decided to change the experimental procedure with regard to the new circumstances.

3. They examined the given problem with respect to a new approach.

4. He didn’t know anything at all in relation to her point of view.

5. He was very attentive with regard to her position.

6. With respect to his theory of cognition the issue was of certain interest.

7. He was quite right in relation to his treatment of their method of inquiry.

8. They investigated human attitudes with regard to nonverbal communication.

9. The problem arose only with respect to his way of observation.

10. She made an interesting report in relation to the new data.

Task 9. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:

appropriate (adj.,v.) explanatory research

by mail influence (n.,v.)

cause-and-effect relations investigation

causal links measure (n., v.)

clarify occur

closed/open-ended format self-administered survey

descriptive research specify

(dis)advantage suit (v.)

empirical evidence variable

employ with regard to

UNIT 5. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND INDIVIDUALITY

Because society is an organized system, it is not surprising that social interaction is patterned. Society is, after all, built on countless interactions among individual human beings, and human beings have the capacity to act with almost infinite variety. In the absence of social patterns, people would indeed find social life confusing. Culture provides guidelines for human behavior in the form of values and norms.

The assertion that human behavior is socially patterned often provokes some initial resistance. Few human beings readily admit to being part of any kind of system, especially those who live in a culture that prizes individual autonomy. Americans, for instance, tend to emphasize individual responsibility for behavior and highlight the unique elements of their personalities. Behaving in patterned ways, however, does not threaten our individuality. On the contrary, individuality is encouraged by social structure.

First, and more generally, our humanity involves much more than physical existence. The great potential of human beings develops only thorough interaction with others. Within social life, distinct personalities emerge as people blend their unique qualities with the values and norms of the large culture from freely expressing ourselves. The social world can be disorienting, even frightening, to people who do not know the behavior guidelines. Without this knowledge, people feel too uncomfortable to express their unique personalities with confidence.

To illustrate, you may recall going alone to a party given by people you did not know well. Entering such a setting – and not knowing quite what to expect – is likely to cause some anxiety. At such times you generally feel self-conscious, try to make a favorable impression, and look to others for clues about what sort of behavior is expected of you. Once you understand the behavioral standards that apply to the setting, you are likely to feel comfortable enough to “act like yourself”.

Of course, social structure also places some constraints on human behavior. By guiding behavior within culturally approved bounds, established social patterns discourage behavior that is culturally defined as unconventional. Traditional values and norms in the United States and Canada, for example, still reflect the expectation that males will be “masculine” (physically strong, self-assertive, and rational) and the females will be “feminine” (physically weak, self-effacing, and emotional). The structure of society exerts pressure on individuals to fit into one or the other of these categories, ignoring the fact that most people have both “masculine” and “feminine” qualities. In this and many other ways, social structure can limit any individual’s freedom to think and act in ways that may be personally preferred. In addition, the failure to conform the established social patterns may lead to being defined by others as deviant.

Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:

Autonomy, category, comfortable, deviant, disorienting, individuality, rational, structure, unique

Task 2. Answer the following questions:

1. Why do we say that social interaction is patterned?

2. What does culture provide?

3. So, according to what is our behavior patterned?

4. What may this assertion provoke/

5. Through what does the potential of human beings develop?

6. In what cases do people feel uncomfortable?

7. What do you feel in an unfamiliar situation?

8. What does social structure place on human behavior?

9. What is understood by unconventional behavior?

10. What pressure does the structure of society exert on individuals?

11. What can social structure limit?

Task 3. State the general idea of each paragraph of the text.

Task 4. Express your opinion of the text. Use the following words for the characteristic:

important- inconclusive

essential – trivial

well-presented – muddle

interesting – dull

valid – inaccurate , wrong

Task 5. Summarize the text in 10 sentences.

Task 6. Translate the text in writing:

1. Sociology is more than a perspective; it is also a form of investigation that uses the logic of science to learn about the social world.

2. There are three basic requirements of sociological investigation: (1) being aware of the larger social world; (2) using the sociological perspective; and (3) being curious and asking questions about society.

3. The logic of science makes use of concepts and variables. Concepts are abstract ideas that represent elements of society. Concepts that vary in value are called variables. Measurement is the process of determining the value of a variable in any specific case. Sound measurement has the qualities of reliability and validity.

4. The logic of science demands objectivity on the part of a researcher. While issues chosen for investigation may reflect personal interests, personal values and biases must be suspended in conducting the research.

5. The logic of science was developed primarily through studying the natural world. Although science can be used to study social behavior, it has important limitations for doing so.

6. Curiosity and imagination, necessary for all successful research, spring from the human mind and not from the logic of science. Moreover, all human reality is based on patterns of meaning. The process of interpretation is therefore part of all sociological investigation.

Task 7. Find in the text “Social Structure and Individuality” English equivalents for:

бесчисленные взаимодействия; запутанный; с готовностью; например; напротив; сбивающий с толку; уверенно; окружение (среда); вызывать беспокойство; произвести благоприятное впечатление; принятые культурные рамки; мужские качества; женские качества; ограничить свободу; оказывать давление; кроме того

Task 8. Arrange the following words into groups of antonyms:

1. disorganized a) limited

2. chaos b) familiar

3. infinite c) quietly

4. in the presence d) difference

5. lose e) emerge

6. unfamiliar f) organized

7. leave g) in the absence

8. finish h) enter

9. noisily i) arrival

10. departure j) in other words

11. ordinary k) uncomfortable

12. similarity l) system

13. in the same way m) find

14. seldom n)begin

15. disappear o) unique

16. comfortable p) weak

17. strong q) often

Task 9. Make up sentences choosing an appropriate variant from the second column and translate them into Russian:

1. The scientist was guided by … .

2. The room was filled with … .

3. His theory is built on … .

4. Human behavior is defined by … .

5. Social interaction is patterned … .

6. His activity is encouraged by … .

7. He is in charge of … .

1. cultural values and norms.

2. the working team.

3. the latest scientific discoveries.

4. the Sociology Research Institute.

5. unfamiliar faces.

6. empirical investigation.

7. as society is an organized system.

Task 10. Make up dialogues according to the following situations:

1. An odd person comes to you. He says you were friends years ago. You have never met him before and you suspect his motives.

2. Your friend is acting very strangely. You feel he has a secret worry. Find out what is wrong with him.

Note: the following word-combinations may be helpful:

To be concerned with, to be interested in, to be guided by, to be encouraged by, to be in charge of, to be filled with, to be prone to, to make use of.

Task 11. Translate into English:

1. Для успешного исследования необходимы любознательность и воображение.

2. Процесс интерпретации является частью социологического исследования.

3. Понятия – это абстрактные идеи, представляющие элементы общества.

4. Общество является организованной системой, поэтому социальное взаимодействие шаблонно.

5. Мало кто из людей с готовностью соглашается с тем, что является частью какой-то системы.

6. Для примера можно вспомнить выше участие в мероприятии, которое устраивают малознакомые вам люди.

7. Социальная структура накладывает определенные ограничения на поведение.

8. Неспособность соответствовать установленным моделям может привести к тому, что другие будут воспринимать вас как девианта.

Task 12. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:

anxiety quality

assertion rational

conform recall

constraint resistance

established patterns self-assertive

exert pressure self-conscious

guideline setting

infinite unconventional

interaction unique

make a favorable impression with confidence

UNIT 6. ROLE

A second major component of social interaction is role, which refers to patterns of behavior corresponding to a particular status. Ralph Linton described a role as the dynamic expression of a status. A student has a role that involves patterned interaction with professors and other students, and responding to academic demands made by the college. As Linton explained, while individuals occupy a status, they perform a role. Cultural norms suggest how a person who holds a particular status ought to act, which is often called a role expectation. However, real culture only approximates ideal culture; therefore, actual role performance usually varies from role expectation.

Like status, a role is relational by directing social behavior toward some other person. The role that corresponds to the status of parent, for example, is ideally defined in terms of responsibilities toward a child. Correspondingly, the role of son or daughter is ideally defined in terms of obligations toward a parent. There are countless other examples of roles paired in this way: the behavior of wives and husbands is performed in relation to each other, as is the behavior of physicians and patients, and of professors and students.

Because individuals occupy many statuses at one time – a status set – they perform multiple roles. Yet a person has even more roles than statuses because any one status involves performing several roles in relation to various other people. Robert Merton (1968) introduced the term role set to identify a number of roles attached to a single status.

The several roles that are linked to any particular status are not always easily integrated, so an individual can feel pulled in several directions at once. Role strain is defined as incompatibility among the roles corresponding to a single status. When several roles linked to a single status make competing demands a person may not always be able to live up to social expectations. A parent, for example, may have difficulty with simultaneous responsibilities to discipline a child and to be the child’s trusted confident.

In addition, roles attached to different statuses often demand incompatible patterns of behavior. The concept of role conflict refers to incompatibility among the roles corresponding to two or more statuses. Single parents often experience conflict in their attempt to be both parents and bread winners – each status demands considerable time and energy. Consequently, the individual may find that both roles cannot be fully performed simultaneously.

Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:

actual, audience, dialogue, discipline, dramaturgical, dynamic, ideal, identify, observed, occupy, patient, physician, professor, status, theatre

Task 2. Find the definitions of:

1. Role; 2) Role set; 3) Role strain; 4) Role conflict.

Task 3. Answer the following questions:

1. When do the individuals play roles?

2. What is called role expectation?

3. Are role performance and role expectation the same or different notions?

4. Does a person have more roles or statuses?

5. What is the difference between role strain and role conflict?

Task 4. Make up disjunctive questions:

1. A role is described as the dynamic expression of a status.

2. Actual role performance usually varies from role expectation.

3. Individuals occupy many statuses at one time.

4. People perform multiple roles.

5. A person has more roles than statuses.

6. Roles attached to different statuses often demand incompatible patterns of behavior.

Task 5. Summarize the contents of the text in 10 sentences.

Task 6. Identify a number of roles played by:

1. your parents;

2. your close friend;

3. your neighbor;

4. you personally.

Task 7. Translate the text in writing: