Theory_2

2.EMPHATIC ADVICE, REQUEST, INVITATION (in affirmative and negative sentences)

You must come and see me sometime.

You mustn’t miss the film. It’s worth while seeing it.

You must stop worrying about your son. You mustn’t give another thought to what he said.

NOTE: “Must” may express emphasis. In this case “must” is not translated; it merely emphasizes some action or idea.

Of course after I gave her my advice she must go and do the opposites. (Ну, авжеж,

після того, як я їй порадила вона раптом піди та й зроби навпаки.)

As we were starting what must he do but cut his finger. (Ми вже виходили, коли він раптом порізав собі палець (...візьми та й поріж...).)

At the time when everybody is in bed he must turn on the radio. (Саме тоді, коли вже всі сплять, він раптом вмикає радіо.)

II.Must combined with any form of the infinitive expresses:

1.STRONG PROBABILITY, SUPPOSITION IMPLYING ASSURANCE, NEAR CERTAINTY. (in affirmative sentences)

Synonyms: probably, evidently, surely, no doubt, undoubtedly, it’s clear that, in all probability.

He must be ill. He looks so pale.

The book is not on the shelf. Jane must be reading it.

He is smoking over there. He must have finished his work.

It must have been raining all the night. There are big puddles in the garden.

NOTE: when “must” expresses strong probability, it is not used:

a)with reference to the future. (in this case we find words “probably, evidently,(un)likely” in the sentence)

He will probably come tomorrow.

She will evidently feel lonely.

They are (un)likely to come.

b)in negative and interrogative forms. (the negative meaning is expressed by negative affixes, negative pronouns, or lexically)

Evidently (probably) they didn’t come to any agreement.

They must have failed to come to any agreement.

They must have misunderstood us.

He must never have guessed the truth.

He must be unaware of that.

They must have been inattentive.

They must have had no chance to warn you.

The letter must have been left unanswered.

TO BE TO

as a modal work is used in the Present and Past tenses. It expressed:

1.OBLIGATION arising out of (resulting from) the arrangement or plan (in affirmative and interrogative sentences)

Synonyms: to plan; to make a plan; to arrange; to agree; to decide.

We are to complete this work by tomorrow. When am I to come?

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I was to meet Mother at the dentist’s at 11.

NOTE: The past tense of the verb “to be” in combination with the Perfect Indefinite denotes an action that did not take place.

I promised to go to the club with her, and I really forgot all about it. We were to have played a duet together.

In the following meaning only the Indefinite Infinitive is used:

2. (Strict) ORDERS AND INSTRUCTIONS (often official) (in the affirmative sentences)

Strict prohibition (in the negative sentences)

You are to do it exactly the way you are told.

If your letter contains anything valuable you are to register it. You are not to leave the place until I return.

3. PURPOSE, PLAN

A knife is to cut with.

The prize was to honor him for his great discoveries.

4.POSSIBILITIY (in all kinds of sentences, with the Passive indefinite infinitive)

He was often to be seen in the bar of the Hotel Metropole. Where is he to be found?

Such envelopes aren’t to be bought anywhere.

(“to be to” is equivalent to “can” and “may”)

NOTE: Question with “How…?” and the Active indefinite infinitive:

How am I to replay you for your kindness?

5.SOMETHING THAT IS DESTINED TO HAPPEN, THAT IS UNAVOIDABLE (in the affirmative and negative sentences)

He did not know at the time that he was never to see his native place again. If we are to be neighbors for life, we should be on friendly terms.

It was not to be.

Here are some set phrases:

What am I to do? Where am I to go?

What is to become at me? (Що зі мною буде?) When am I to be there?

Who is to begin? Who is to blame? What is to be done?

It is to be hoped. (Треба сподіватись.)

NEED

as a modal verb may be used:

as a defective (недостатній) verb. It has only one form. In reported speech it remains unchanged. “Need” is followed by the infinitive without the particle “to”.

as a regular verb. It has the past form “needed”, and regular negative and interrogative forms. It is followed by the infinitive with the particle “to”.

Need expresses (in the combination with the Indefinite Infinitive):

1. NECESSITY (in the interrogative and affirmative (not typical) sentences)

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2. ABSENCE OF NECESSITY (in the negative sentences)

Synonyms: There is no need to do it. It is not necessary to do it. There is no necessity to do it.

Need I answer this question? You needn’t be afraid of me.

Do I need to show my documents every time?

You don’t need to tell me that you are sorry.

NOTE I: In negative sentences it is not always the verb need that is in the negative form; the negation may be found elsewhere in the sentence:

They need hardly discuss the problem again.

I don’t think we need give her any more of our attention.

NOTE II: didn’t need to do something (1) didn’t have to do something; 2) it was not necessary, but it was done). Needn’t have done something (1) it was not necessary, but it was done

I didn’t need to buy the textbook (and I didn’t) as I had it at home.

He needn’t have bought the book (but he did) as it is available at library.

NOTE III: Occasionally “need” may be found in affirmative sentences, but it is not typical:

a)after the negation in the main clause (example – see NOTE I)

b)after the verb “to doubt” (I doubt if I need ring him up.)

c)in indirect questions (She wonders if he need stay in the office.)

NOTE IV: The regular verb “need” may be followed by a noun or pronoun, but in this case it is not a modal verb, it is a notional verb:

She needs a new dictionary. Does he need my help?

SHALL

is not purely the modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning obligation with the function of the auxiliary verb in the future tense. As a modal verb “shall” is not translated into Ukrainian, usually its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation. “Shall” is combined only with the Indefinite Infinitive and expresses:

1.PROMISE (in affirmative and negative sentences, with the 2nd or 3rd person)

Don’t worry, you shall have a minute’s rest before the meeting.

2.THREAT OR WARNING (in affirmative and negative sentences, with the 2nd and 3rd person)

She shall pay for it, she shall.

Anyone found guilt shall be shot at once.

3.COMPULSION OR STRICT ORDER (in affirmative and negative sentences, with the 2nd or 3rd person)

You shall stop reading fiction books at your lectures.

4.INTENTION, DETERMINATION (in affirmative and negative sentences, with the 1st person)

I want that prize and I shall win it.

5. SUGGESTION, ASKING FOR INSTRUCTIONS, MAKING AN OFFER (in interrogative sentences, with the 1st and 3rd person)

Shall I make you a cup of coffee? Shall I start speaking on the topic?

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NOTE: the above-mentioned meanings are closely connected with the meaning of obligation which is at present not common in spoken English and which is normally confined to formal or archaic style (official regulations or other documents) and is mainly found in subordinate clauses:

It has been decided that the second reading shall not be opposed. The fine shall not exceed 100 dollars.

SHOULD and OUGHT TO

have only one form which is not changed in reported speech. They are very much alike in meaning and they are nearly always interchangeable. Should is followed by the infinitive without the particle “to”, ought is followed by the infinitive with the particle “to”. These modal verbs express:

1. MODAL OBLIGATION OR DUTY which may not be fulfilled. (in all kinds of sentences)

Should + Non-Perfect Infinitive refers the action to the present or future. Ought + Non-perfect Infinitive refers the action to the present or future.

You ought to/should help your friend. He is in trouble. Ought she help him? Should she help him?

He oughtn’t to/shouldn’t do it.

Should/ought to + Perfect Infinitive shows that a desirable action was not fulfilled and implies reproach, criticism, regret.

You ought to/should have told me about it.

Shouldn’t/oughtn’t to + Perfect Infinitive shows that an undesirable was fulfilled, something wrong has been done and it is now too late to change it (= criticism of the past action).

You oughtn’t to/shouldn’t have interfered.

2. ADVISABILITY, DESIRABILITY (in all kinds of sentences, usually with Non-Perfect Infinitive)

You ought to see a doctor.

You should not read in bed at all.

NOTE: It is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the first and the second meaning.

Synonyms: I advise you to do…; I advise you not to do…; I recommend you to do…; I urge you to do…; It’s advisable for you to do…; I would advise you to do…

3.PROBABILITY, something naturally expected (in the affirmative and negative sentences, generally with the Indefinite Infinitive)

This dish ought to/should be very delicious as it has been prepared by Mother. This dish is very delicious. It ought to/should have been prepared by Mother. The guests shouldn’t come for another hour. (Гості навряд чи прийдуть раніше, ніж через годину.)

NOTE: Must is more frequent in this meaning than should/ought to.

ONLY SHOULD IS USED TO EXPRESS:

1)INSTRUCTIONS and CORRECTIONS (in all kinds of sentences with the Indefinite Infinitive)

You should use the definite article in this sentence.

You should take this medicine three times a day before your meals.

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2)for EMOTIONAL COLOURING (with the Indefinite Infinitive) in the following cases:

a)in rhetorical questions beginning with “why”: Why should I help him?

Why shouldn’t I join them?

b)in object clauses beginning with “why”:

I could not understand why he should be angry with us.

I don’t see why we shouldn’t make friends.

c)in attributive appositive clauses beginning with “why” after the noun “reason”:

There is no reason why they shouldn’t get on well together. I don’t see any reason why he shouldn’t be happy.

d)in construction of the following kind:

The door opened and who should come in but Tom.

As I was crossing the street, whom should I meet but Aunt Ann herself. e) in the set phrase How should I know?

WILL/WOULD

“Will” is not purely modal verb. It almost always combines its modal meaning with the function of the auxiliary verb of the future tense. “Will” has 2 forms: will – for the present tense, would – for the past tense. The use of the forms will and would is mainly parallel, though in a few cases their meanings differ.

I.Will/would followed by the Indefinite Infinitive may express:

1.VOLITION (willingness, intention, determination, readiness). (in affirmative and negative sentences)

Synonyms: I intend…; I am willing…; We wish…, We want…; I am determined…

I have often spoken at public meetings but this time I won’t.

I said I would go there by all means.

This meaning is often found in conditional sentences, that is in complex sentences with subordinate adverbial clauses of condition:

If you will wait for me, I’ll be very grateful.

If you would help me with my work I shouldn’t worry about it.

2. PERSISTENCE (or RESISTANCE, INSISTENCE), REFUSAL TO PERFORM AN ACTION (also with lifeless thing; in affirmative and negative sentences)

Synonyms: Somebody insists on…; keeps on…; refuses…; continues…;

The teacher scolds her for whispering at the lesson, but she will whisper. The door won’t (wouldn’t) open.

3.HABITUAL or RECURRENT ACTIONS (in affirmative sentences) Synonym: used to

will (the present tense) – is not common.

would (the past tense) – is mainly characteristic of literary style.

That romantic girl will sit staring at the night sky. He would fish for hours without catching anything.

4.POLITE REQUEST, OFFERS, INVITATIONS (sentence with would renders a greater degree of politeness)

Will you pass me the salt?

Would you like to come to tea this afternoon

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5.COMMAND (only will)

You will do exactly as I say.

An impatient command can begin with “will you”:

Will you be quiet!

“Will you” is used in the tag after: a) a negative command (Don’t be late, will you.); b) a positive command (Shut the door, will you.)

6.INEVITABILITY, CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR OR QUALITY

What will be will be.

Accidents will happen. (Нещасні випадки неминучі.)

Truth will out. (Істину не приховати.)

That’s exactly like Jocelyn – she would lose the key.

6.LOGICAL NECESSITY or EXPECTATION (mainly “would’); (in affirmative and negative sentences)

You would forget. – Звичайно ж, ви забули.

You would be late! - Звичайно, ти знову запізнився.

II.Will/would followed by any form of the Infinitive can express supposition, probability, prediction, certainty (in the similar way to “must”); (in affirmative and negative sentences); (“would” is more hesitant)

Who is the man? You wouldn’t know him.

John will/would still be reading his paper.

You will/would have heard that the plan is to be discussed tomorrow.

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Approximate questions of the credit

1.Types of literal translation from and into English.

2.The difference between the interlinear and literary translation.

3.Antonymic translation and its employment.

4.Descriptive translation and its employment.

5.Translation of the names and family names of people, geographical names.

6.Translation of the names of companies, corporations, firms and their corresponding bodies.

7.Translation of the names of enterprises, universities, etc. bearing honorary names.

8.Translation of local names, names of residential areas, hotels, publishing houses, news agencies, etc.

9.Translation of the titles of newspapers (magazines, journals).

10.Translation of the names of public bodies (political parties, trade unions, etc.).

11.Ways of identification of genuine and pseudo-internationalisms, “false friends of the translator”.

12.Ways of conveying the meaning and different lingual forms.

13.Ways of translating loan internationalisms.

14.Identification of the culturally biased notions/specific notions of national lexicon.

15.Ways of conveying specific notions of lexicon into the TL.

16.Idiomatic expressions and their classification.

17.Ways of translation of idiomatic expressions.

18.Translation of lexically charged determining articles.

19.Conveying the contextual meanings of the definite article.

20.Conveying the contextual meaning of the indefinite article.

21.Asyndetic noun clusters and their syntactic nature.

22.Ways of translating two-and three-component asyndetic substantial clusters.

23.Ways of translating the three-and more component asyndetic noun clusters.

24.Translation of Ukrainian semantic equivalents of asyndetic noun clusters into English.

25.Ways of conveying the meaning of the infinitive and infinitival constructions/complexes into Ukrainian.

26.Ways of conveying the meaning of the participial constructions/complexes.

27.Ways of conveying the gerund and gerundial constructions/complexes.

28.Modality as an extralingual category.

29.Objective/grammatical modality and ways of its expression in English and Ukrainian.

30.Common modal verbs and their meaning in English vs. Ukrainian.

31.Allomorphic English modal verbs and their semantic equivalents in Ukrainian.

32.Expression of modality in English and Ukrainian simple and composite sentences.

33.Transformation and its employment in the process of translation.

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