15. Antonyms as a language universal. Types of antonyms in Ukr. And Eng. Languages.

Antonyms are words of the same language belonging to the same part of speech and to the same semantic field, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and often used together so that their denotative m-ing render contradictory or contrary notions.

Antonyms form mostly pairs, not groups like synonyms.(e.g. above: below, absent: present, alike: different, швидко: повільно, весело: сумно, тепло: холодно)

Semantic Class

Contradictories are antonyms which denotes notions mutually apposed and denying one another.(e.g. dead: alive, single: married, живий: мертвий, створювати: руйнувати)

Contraries differ from contradictories in having some intermediate number. (e.g. cold: hot(cold: warm are intermediate number), молодий: старий( не молодий: ні старий, середнього віку, літній, нестарий – are intermediate components.)

16. Set-phrases and free-phrases in the English and Ukrainian languages: the problem of differentiation.

Phraseological as a branch of linguistic science studies set-phrases, or phraseological units.

The term “phraseological unit” was introduced by Soviet linguists and is generally accepted In the countries of post-Soviet period.

The term “phraseological unit” is a generic term.

Other terms:

- an idiom, which stresses full or partial transference of meaning of the phrase;

- a set-phrase, which underlines the stability of the componential structure of the phrase

- a word-equivalent, which shows the ability of the phrase to function as if it were a word.

Phraseological units are set-phrases.

The border-line between phraseological units and free word-group is not clearly defined.

The so-called “free word-groups” are very close to set-phrases because

- they can only relatively free

- collectability of their member-words is: fundamentally delimited by their lexical and grammatical valency.

17. Valency. Grammatical and lexical valency.

Grammatical valency

Grammatical valency is the ability of a word to appear in various grammatical structures.

The grammatical valency distinguishes individual meanings of a polysemantic word.

V+N – to grow roses = to cultivate

V+V – to grow to like = to begin

V+Adj – (it is possible when we have link verb) to grow old = to become

V+D – to grow quickly – to increase

Lexical Valency (life experience)

Lexical valency is the ability of a word to be used in different lexical texts.

V+N – to deliver letters = to distribute letters

to deliver a blow = to strike a blow

The range of grammatical valency is restricted by lexical valency:

A+N – blind people (+) – blind sugar (-)

But phrases, literally absurd, may be used figuratively: Look at him! A smiling crocodile!

Lexical valency is different in different languages

Heavy sea – бурхливе море

Heavy fog – густий туман

Heavy clouds – важкі хмари

The lexico-grammatical pattern is can arrangement of component elements of a free word-group.

The patterns of free word-group are generative.

18. Set-phrases in the English and Ukrainian languages: distinguishing features.

Phraseological units possess phraseological stability, which may be called macrostability.

Phraseological stability might roughly correspond to another term idiomaticity used by English and American linguists.

By idiomaticity the mean two essential features of phraseological units – stability of lexical components and lack of motivation.

Macrostability is made up of several microstabilities: 1) stability of use 2) stability of meaning 3) lexical stability

Stability of use

• reproduced ready-made

• registered in dictionaries

• handed down from generations

• public property, not private

Stability of meaning

The meaning of phraseological units may be:

• fully transferred, whеn the meaning of the whole phrase in not equal to ets components.

• Metaphor, (a bull in a China shop, мати зуб на когось)

• Metonymy (Wall Street, Макар Касян)

• Partially transferred, when the meaning of one of the components of a phrase is literal ( as brave as lion, язиката Хвеська)

• Complicated, when the meaning of every component of a phrase is a literal but something additional is expressed.

Lexical stability

1. Phraseological units with no lexical replacement possible.

But they may have grammatical forms.

2. certain, limited replacement are possible. ( close (near) at hand,мені начхати/параленьно/ фіолетово)

variants are fixed, their number is determined.

19-22. There are different classifications of phraseological units from the synchronic point of view based on different approaches:

1) semantic (Vinogradov’s)2) functional (Smirnitsky’s)3) contextual (Amosova’s)4) structural and semantic (Kunin’s)

1. Vinogradov’s classification is based upon the motivation of the unit. There are:

- phraseological fusions (e.g. tit for tat) represent as their name suggests the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Phraseological fusions are specific for every language and do not lend themselves to literal translation into other languages.

- phraseological unities are much more numerous. They are clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole as in to stick (to stand) to one's guns, i.e. 4refuse to change one's statements or opinions in the face of opposition', implying courage and integrity. The example reveals another characteristic of the type, the possibility of synonymic substitution, which can be only very limited, e.g. to know the way the wind is blowing.

- the phraseological collocations (combinations), are partially motivated, they contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: meet the demand, meet the necessity, meet the requirements.

2) Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He also points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among one-top units he points out three structural types:

a) units of the type “to give up” (verb + postposition type);

To back up – to support; to drop out – to miss, to omit

b) units of the type “to be tired”.

To be tired of; to be surprised at.

c) prepositional-nominal phraseological units:

On the doorstep - quite near; on the nose – exactly.

Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such as:

A month of Sundays; a millstone round one’s neck.

b) verb-nominal phraseological units: to read between the lines; to sweep under the carpet.

c) phraseological repetitions, such as:

Now or never; part and parcel (integral part).

3. N.N. Amosova's approach is contextological. She defines phraseological units as units of fixed context. Fixed context is defined as a context characterized by a specific and unchanging sequence of definite lexical components, and a peculiar semantic relationship between them. Units of fixed context are subdivided into phrasemes and idioms. Phrasemes are always binary: one component has a phraseologically bound meaning, the other serves as the determining context (small talk, small hours, small change). In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole, though every element it has its original meaning weakened or even completely lost: in the nick of time 'at the exact moment'.

4. O.V. Kunin’s classification

- idioms are set expressions, with fully or partially transferred meanings: to show the white feather, an odd (queer) fish.

- semi-idioms have both literal and figurative meanings: chain reaction, to lay down one’s arms

- phraseomatic units are set expressions with literal but complex meanings: to raise one’s eyebrows, to pay attention (a visit), to clean one’s fits (teeth).

The structural types

• nominal phrases: a bit (piece of one’s mind, hot dog, троянський кінь, дамоклів меч

• adjectival phrases: as good as gold, хитрий як лис

• verbal phrases: kick two birds with one stone, брати бика за роги

• adverbial phrases: from head to heals, in a twinkle of an eye, по всіх усюдах, як собака на прив’язі

• parenthetical phrases: by Jeorge! my aunt!

• introductory phrases: as a matter of fact, after all

• phrases with the structure of a sentence

1. sayings: never say die

2. proverbs: every cloud has a silver lining, ворон ворону око не виклює.