Введение в психологию

Рис. П6. Точечная диаграмма. Каждая точка отражает х- и у-показатели определенного учащегося.

Мы подсчитаем корреляцию, чтобы проиллюстрировать этот метод, хотя на практике ни один исследователь не станет считать корреляцию для столь малого количества показателей. Подробности приведены в табл. П6. Согласно процедуре, приведенной в табл. П3, мы вычисляем стандартное отклонение x-показателей, а затем стандартное отклонение y-показателей. Затем мы вычисляем произведение (dx) x (dy) для каждого человека и для 5 случаев в общем. Подставляя полученные числа в уравнение, получаем r = +0.85.

Интерпретация коэффициента корреляции

Корреляцию можно использовать для прогнозирования. Например, если из опыта известно, что определенный вступительный тест коррелирует с отметками первокурсников, можно предсказать отметки на экзаменах за первый курс у тех начинающих студентов, которые этот тест проходили. Если корреляция полная, их отметки можно предсказать безошибочно. Но, как правило, r меньше 1,00 и в прогнозе есть определенные ошибки; чем ближе r к 0, тем больше ошибка прогноза.

Мы не сможем рассмотреть технические проблемы прогнозирования оценок первокурсников, исходя из оценок на вступительном экзамене или других аналогичных прогнозов, но можно рассмотреть смысл разной величины коэффициента корреляции. Очевидно, что если корреляция между х и у равна 0, то знание х не поможет предсказать у. Если вес человека не связан с интеллектом, то знание о весе ничего не дает для предсказания интеллекта. Другое полярное значение

— полная корреляция — означало бы 100%-ную эффективность прогноза: зная х, можно было бы абсолютно точно предсказать у. Но что значат промежуточные величины r? Некоторое представление о значении промежуточной величины коэффициента корреляции можно получить из точечных диаграмм на рис. П7.

Рис. П7. Точечные диаграммы, иллюстрирующие разную величину корреляции. Каждая точка изображает оценки одного человека в двух экзаменах, х и у. На графике А все случаи падают на диагональ, и корреляция является полной (r = +1,00); если известна оценка человека по х, значит она будет такой же и по у. На графике Б корреляция равна 0; зная оценку человека по х, мы не сможем сказать, будет ли она у него такой же, выше или ниже по у. Например, из четырех человек со одинаковой средней оценкой, равной х (dx = 0), один получает очень высокую отметку по у (dy = +2), один — очень низкую (dy = -2), а два получают среднюю. На графиках В и Г существует диагональная тенденция отметок, так что высокая отметка по х имеет связь с высокой отметкой по у, а низкая отметка по х имеет связь с низкой отметкой по у, но связь эта неполная. Если на осях не будет обычных шкал, это никак не повлияет на интерпретацию. Например, если бы мы координатам х и у присвоили величины от 5 до 10 и затем подсчитали бы r для этих новых величин, коэффициент корреляции получился бы тем же самым.

В предыдущем обсуждении мы не обращали особого внимания на знак коэффициента корреляции, поскольку он не говорит о силе связи. Единственное различие между коэффициентами корреляции +0,70 и -0,70 — это то, что в первом случае увеличение х сопровождается увеличением у: а во втором увеличение х сопровождается уменьшением у.

Коэффициент корреляции — один из наиболее часто применяемых статистических инструментов в психологии, но одновременно это одна из тех процедур, которые чаще всего неверно используются. Те, кто им пользуется, часто упускают из виду, что r не указывает на причинноследственную связь между х и у. Когда два набора показателей коррелируют, можно предположить, что у них есть некоторый общий причинный фактор, но нельзя считать, что один из них просто вызывает другой.

Корреляция иногда выглядит парадоксально. Например, было обнаружено, что корреляция между временем, затрачиваемым на учебу, и оценками в колледже имеет слегка отрицательную величину (-0,10). Если использовать причинную интерпретацию, то пришлось бы заключить, что лучший способ улучшить отметки — перестать учиться. На самом же деле отрицательная корреляция возникает здесь просто потому, что у некоторых студентов есть преимущество над остальными в получении высоких отметок (возможно потому, что они лучше были подготовлены к колледжу), так что те, кто затрачивает больше времени на учебу, — это часто те, кому высокие отметки даются труднее остальных.

Этот пример служит достаточным предупреждением против причинного понимания коэффициента корреляции. Случается, однако, что две переменных коррелируют и одна из них действительно является причиной другой. Поиск причины — дело логики, и корреляция может направлять экспериментаторов при проверке причинно-следственных отношений.

Литература

ABELSON, R. P., ARONSON, E., MCGUIRE, W. J., NEWCOMB, T. M.. ROSENBERG, M. J., & TANNENBAUM. P. H. (Eds.). (1968). THEORIES OF COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY: A SOURCEBOOK (pp.112-39) Chicago: Rand McNally.

ADAMS, J. L. (1974). CONCEPTUAL BLOCK-BUSTING. Stanford, CA: Stanford Alumni Association.

ADAMS, M., & COLLINS, A. (1979). A schema-theoretic view of reading. In R. O. Freedle (Ed.), NEW DIRECTIONS DISCOURSE PROCESSING, Vol. 12. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

ADORNO, T. W., FRENKEL-BRUNSWIK, E., LEVINSON. D. J.. & SANFORD. R. N. (1950). THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY. New York: Harper.

AGRAS, W. S. (1985). PANIC: FACING FEARS, PHOBIAS, AND ANXIETY. New York: Freeman.

AINSWORTH, M. D. S., BLEHAR, M. C., WALTERS, E.. & WALL. S. (1978). PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT: A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE STRANGE SITUATION. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

AKERS, C. (1984). Methodological criticisms of parapsychology. In S. Krippner (Ed.), ADVANCES IN PARAPSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Vol. 4). Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

ALBERTS. В., BRAY. D., LEWIS. J., RAFF, M., ROBERTS. K., & WATSON. J. D. (1989). MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE CELL. New York: Garland.

ALLPORT, F. H. (1924). SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

ALLPORT G. W. (1937). PERSONALITY: A PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION. New York: Henry Holt.

ALTEMEYER, B. (1988). ENEMIES OF FREEDOM: UNDERSTANDING RIGHT-WING AUTHORITARIANISM. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

ALWIN, D. F.. COHEN, R. L., & NEWCOMB, Т. М. (1991). PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE: ATTITUDE PERSISTENCE AND CHANGES OVER THE LIFESPAN. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION. (1987). DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION. (1994). DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

ANASTASI. A. (1989). PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING (6th ed.). New York: MacMillan.

ANCH, M. A., BROWMAN, C. P., MITLER, M. M., & WALSH, J. K. (1988). SLEEP: A SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice-Hall.

ANDERSON, C. M., REISS, D. J., & HOGARTY, G. E. (1986). SCHIZOPHRENIA AND THE FAMILY. New York: Guilford Press.

ANDERSON, J. R. (1983). THE ARCHITECTURE OF COGNITION. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

ANDERSON, J. R. (1990). COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS (3rd ed.). New York: Freeman.

ARDREY, R. (1966). THE TERRITORIAL IMPERATIVE. New York: Dell.

ARENDT, H. (1963). EICHMANN IN JERUSALEM: A REPORT ON THE BANALITY OF EVIL. New York: Viking Press.

ARONSON, E. (1995). THE SOCIAL ANIMAL (7th ed.). San Francisco: Freeman.

ARONSON, E., WILSON. T. D.. & AKERT, R. M. (1994). SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. New York: Harper-Collins.

ASCH, S. E. (1952). SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

ASCH, S. E. (1958). Effects of group pressure upon modification and distortion of judgments. In E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, & E. L. Hartley (Eds.). READINGS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (3rd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

ASLIN, R. N. (1987). Visual and auditory development in infancy. In J. D. Osofsky (Ed.), HANDBOOK OF INFANT DEVELOPMENT (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.

ASLIN, R. N. & BANKS, M. S. (1978). Early visual experience in humans: Evidence for a critical period in the development of binocular vision. In S. Schneider, H. Liebowitz, H. Pick, & H. Stevenson

(Eds.). PSYCHOLOGY: FROM BASIC RESEARCH TO PRACTICE. New York: Plenum.

ATKINSON. R. C., HERRNSTEIN, R. J., LINDZEY, G., & LUCE, R. D. (Eds.). (1988). STEVENS' HANDBOOK OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (Vols. 1 and 2). New York: Wiley.

AVERILL, J. R. (1982) ANGER AGGRESSION: AN ESSAY ON EMOTION. New York: Springer-

Verlag.

BAARS, B. J. (1988). COGNITIVE THEORY OF CONSCIOUSNESS. New York: Cambridge University Press.

BADDELEY, A. D. (1990). HUMAN MEMORY: THEORY AND PRACTICE. Boston: Allyn and

Bacon.

BADDELEY. A. D., & HITCH, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.). THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.

BALTES. P. В.. & BALTES, M. M. (Eds.). (1990). SUCCESSFUL AGING: PERSPECTIVES FROM THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

BANDURA, A. (1973). AGGRESSION: A SOCIAL LEARNING ANALYSIS. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

BANDURA, A. (1986). SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF THOUGHT AND ACTION: A SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

BANDURA, A. (1989). SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. BANDURA. A. (1992). Self-efficacy mechanism in psychobiologic functioning. In R. Schwarzer

(Ed.), SELF-EFFICACY: THOUGHT CONTROL OF ACTION (pp. 356-394). Washington, Philadelphia. London: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.

BANKS, W. P., & SALAPATEK, P. (1983). Infant visual perception. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.). HANDBOOK OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 2). New York: Wiley.

BARKOW, J., COSMIDES, L., & TOOBY, J. (1990). THE ADAPTED MIND: EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY AND THE GENERATION OF CULTURE. Oxford University Press.

BARLOW, H. В., & MOLLON, J. D. (1982). THE SENSES. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

BARON, R. A., & BYRNE, D. (1994). SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn and

Bacon.

BARON, R. S. (1986). Distraction-conflict theory: Progress and problems. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL, PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 19). New York: Academic Press.

BARRERA. M. E., & MAURER, D. (1981). Recognition of mother's photographed face by the threemonth-old infant. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 52, 714-716.

BARSALOU, L. W. (1992). COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: AN OVERVIEW FOR COGNITIVE SCIENTISTS. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Press.

BARTLETT, F. C. (1932). REMEMBERING: A STUDY IN EXPERIMENTAL AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

BASS, E., & DAVIS, L. (1988). THE COURAGE TO HEAL. New York: Harper & Row.

BAUM, A.. GATCHEL. R. J., FLEMING. R.. & LAKE. C. R. (1981). CHRONIC AND ACUTE STRESS ASSOCIATED WITH THE THREE MILE ISLAND ACCIDENT AND DECONTAMINATION: PRELIMINARY FINDINGS OF A LONGITUDINAL STUDY. Technical report submitted to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory.

BEATON, A. (1986). LEFT SIDE/ RIGHT SIDE: A REVIEW OF LATERALITY RESEARCH. New Haven: Yale University Press.

BECK, A. T. (1976). COGNITIVE THERAPY AND THE EMOTIONAL DISORDER. New York: International Universities Press.

BECK. A. T. (1988a). LOVE IS NEVER ENOUGH. New York: Harper & Row.

BECK, A. T. (1988b). Cognitive approaches to panic disorder: Theory and therapy. In S. Rachman & J. D. Maser (Eds.). PANIC: PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

BECK, А. Т., RUSH, A. J., SHAW, B. F., & EMERY, G. (1979). COGNITIVE THERAPY OF DEPRESSION. New York: Guilford Press.

BEERS, C. W. (1908). A MIND THAT FOUND ITSELF. New York: Doubleday.

BELL, A. P., & WEINBERG, M. S. (1978). HOMOSEXUALITIES: A STUDY OF DIVERSITY AMONG MEN AND WOMEN. New York: Simon & Schuster.

BELL, A. P., WEINBERG, M. S., & HAMMERSMITH, S. K. (1981a). SEXUAL PREFERENCE: ITS DEVELOPMENT IN MEN AND WOMEN. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

BELL, A. P., WEINBERG, M. S., & HAMMERSMITH, S. K. (1981b). SEXUAL PREFERENCE, ITS DEVELOPMENT IN MEN AND WOMEN. STATISTICAL APPENDIX. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

BELL, L. V. (1980). TREATING THE MENTALLY ILL: FROM COLONIAL TIMES TO THE PRESENT. New York: Praeger.

BELLACK, A. S., HERSEN, M., & KAZDIN, A. E. (Eds.) (1990). INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AND THERAPY. New York: Plenum Press.

BEM, D. J. (1970). BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, AND HUNAN AFFAIRS. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. BEM, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), ADVANCES IN

EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 6). New York: Academic Press.

BEM, D. J. (1983). Toward a response style theory of persons in situations. In R. A. Dienstbier & M. M. Page (Eds.), NEBRASKA SYMPOSIUM ON MOTIVATION 1982: PERSONALITY — CURRENT THEORY AND RESEARCH (Vol. 30, pp. 201-231). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

BEM, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW, 88, 354-364.

BEM. S. L. (1985). Androgyny and gender schema theory: A conceptual and empincal integration. In Т. В. Sonderegger (Ed.). NEBRASKA SYMPOSIUM ON MOTIVATION 1984: PSYCHOLOGY AND GENDER (pp. 179-226). Lincoln. NE: University of Nebraska Press.

BEM, S. L. (1987). Gender schema theory and the romantic tradition. In P. Shaver, & C. Hendrick (Eds.), REVIEW OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 7, pp. 251-271). Newbury Park, СA: Sage.

BEM, S. L. (1993). THE LENSES OF GENDER: TRANSFORMING THE DEBATE ON SEXUAL INEQUALITY. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

BENSON, D. F. (1985). Aphasia. In K. M. Heilman & E. Valenstein (Eds.), CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY (2nd Ed). In New York: Oxford University Press.

BENSON, H. (1976). THE RELAXATION RESPONSE. New York: Morrow.

BERGIN, A. E.. & LAMBERT, M. J. (1978). The evaluation of therapeutic outcomes. In S. L Garfield & A. E. Bergin (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOTHERAPY AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.

BERKOWITZ. L. (1965). The concept of aggressive drive. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), HANDBOOK OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.

BERLIN, В., & KAY, P. (1969). BASIC COLOR TERMS: THEIR UNIVERSALITY AND EVOLUTION. Los Angeles: University of California Press.

BERMAN, A. L., & JOBES. D. A. (1991). ADOLESCENT SUICIDE ASSESSNENT AND INTERVENTION. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

BERSCHEID. E. (1983). Emotion. In H. H. Kelley. E. Berscheid, A. Christensen, J. H. Harvey. T. L. Hutson, G. Levinger, E. McClintock, L. A. Peplau, & D. R. Peterson (Eds.), CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS (pp. 110-168). New York: Freeman.

BERSCHEID, E., & WALSTER, E. H. (1974). A little bit about love. In T. Huston (Ed.), FOUNDATION OF INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION. New York: Academic Press.

BERSCHEID. E., & WALSTER, E. H. (1978). INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION (2nd ed.). Menlo Park. CA: Addison-Wesley.

BEST, J. B. (1992). COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY. New York: West Publishing. BETTELHEIN, B. (1967). THE EMPTY FORTRESS. New York: Free Press.

BIBRING, E. (1953). The mechanism of depression. In P. Greenacre (Ed.), AFFECTIVE DISORDERS (pp. 13-48). New York: International Universities Press.

BIEDERMAN, I. (1990). Higher-level vision. In D. N. Osherson, S. M. Kossyln. & J. M. Hollerbach (Eds.). AN INVITATION TO COGNITIVE SCIENCE: VISUAL COGNITION AND ACTION (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT press.

BLEIER, R. (1984). SCIENCE AND GENDER: A CRITIQUE OF BIOLOGY AND ITS THEORIES ON WOMEN. New York: Pergamon.

BLOCK, J. (1961/1978). THE Q-SORT METHOD IN PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND PSYCHIATRIC RESEARCH. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.

BLOCK, J. (1971). LIVES THROUGH TIME. Berkeley: Bancroft.

BLOOD, R. O. (1967). LOVE MATCH AND ARRANGED MARRIAGE. New York: Free Press. BLUM, G. S. (1953). PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY. New York: McGraw-

Hill.

BOFF, K. R., KAUFMAN, L., & THOMAS, J. P. (Eds.) (1986). HANDBOOK OF PERCEPTION AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE (Vol. 1). New York: Wiley.

BONANNO, G. A., & SINGER, J. L. (1990). Repressive personality style: Theoretical and methodological implications for health and pathology. In J. L. Singer (Ed.), REPRESSION AND DISSOCIATION (pp. 435-465). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

BOOTH, D. (1990). Learned role of tastes in eating motivation. In E. D. Capaldi & P. T. L. (Eds.). TASTE, EXPERIENCE, AND FEEDING (pp. 179-194). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

BOOTH, D. A. (1991). Learned Ingestive Motivation and the Pleasures of the Palate. In R. C. Bolles (Ed.), THE HEDONICS OF TASTE (pp. 29-58). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

BOOTZIN, R. R., KIHLSTROM, J. F.. & SCHACTER, D. L. (Eds.) (1990). Sleep and Cognition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Assoc.

BORNSTEIN, R. F. (1992). Subliminal mere exposure effects. In R. F. Bornstein & T. S. Pittman (Eds.). PERCEPTION WITHOUT AWARENESS: COGNITIVE, CLINICAL AND SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES (pp. 191-210). New York: Guilford.

BOUCHARD, T. J., JR. (1984). Twins reared apart and together: What they tell us about human diversity. In S. Fox (Ed.), THE CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL BASES OF INDIVIDUALITY. New York: Plenum.

BOWERS, K. S., & MEICHENBAUM, D. H. (Eds.) (1984). THE UNCONSCIOUS RECONSIDERED. New York: Wiley.

BOWLBY, J. (1973). ATTACHMENT AND LOSS: SEPARATION, ANXIETY AND ANGER (Vol. 2). London: Hogarth Press.

BOYNTON, R. M. (1979). HUMAN COLOR VISION. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. BRANSFORD, J. D., & JOHNSON, M. K. (1973). Considerations of some problems of

comprehension. In W. G. Chase (Ed.), VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING. New York: Academic Press.

BRAUN, B. G. (1986). TREATMENT OF MULTIPLE PERSONALITY DISORDER. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

BREHM, S. S. (1992). INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. BRELAND, K., & BRELAND, M. (1966). ANIMAL BEHAVIOR. New York: Macmillan. BRENNER, C. (1980). A psychoanalytic theory of affects. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.).

EMOTION: THEORY, RESEARCH AND EXPERIENCE (Vol. 1). New York. Academic Press. BRENNER, M. H. (1982). Mental illness and the economy. In D. L. Parron, F. Solomon & C. D.

Jenkins (Eds.). BEHAVIOR, HEALTH RISKS, AND SOCIAL DISADVANTAGE. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

BREWER, W. F., & NAKAMURA, G. V. (1984). The nature and functions of schemas. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL COGNITION (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

BROADBENT, D. E. (1958). PERCEPTION AND COMMUNICATION. London: Pergamon Press. BRODY, N. (1992). INTELLIGENCE (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.

BROOKS-GUNN, J., & RUBLE, D. N. (1983). The experience of menarche from a developmental perspective. In I. Brooks-Gunn & A. C. Petersen (Eds.), GIRLS AT PUBERTY: BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES. New York: Plenum.

BROWN, E. L., & DEFFENBACHER, K. (1979). PERCEPTION AND THE SENSES. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

BROWN, G. W., & HARRIS T. (1978). SOCIAL ORIGINS OF DEPRESSION: A STUDY OF PSYCHIATRIC DISORDER IN WOMEN. London: Tavistock.

BROWN, R. (1973). A FIRST LANGUAGE: THE EARLY STAGES. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

BROWN, R. (1986). SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: THE SECOND EDITION. New York: Free Press. BROWN, R., CAZDEN, С. В., & BELLUGI, U. (1969) The child's grammar from 1 to 3. In J. P. Hill

(Ed.). MINNESOTA SYMPOSIUM ON CHILD PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 2). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

BRUCH, H. (1973). EATING DISORDERS: OBESITY, ANOREXIA NERVOSA, AND THE PERSON WITHIN. New York: Basic Books.

BRUNER, J. S. (1957). Going beyond the information given. In CONTENPORARY APPROACHES

TO COGNITION: A SYMPOSIUM HELD AT THE UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

BRUNER, J. S., GOODNOW, J. J., & AUSTIN, G. A. (1956). A STUDY OF THINKING. New York: Wiley.

BRUNER, J. S., OLVER, R. R., GREENFIELD, P. M., & collaborators (1966). STUDIES IN COGNITIVE GROWTH. New York: Wiley.

BURNS, D. D. (1981). FEELING GOOD: THE NEW MOOD THERAPY. New York: Penguin

Books.

BUSS, A. H., & PLOMIN, R. (1975). A TEMPERAMENT THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT. New York: Wiley.

BUSS, D. M. (1994). THE EVOLUTION OF DESIRE: STRATEGIES OF HUMAN MATING. New York: Basic Books.

BUTLER, J. M., & HAIGH, G. V. (1954). Changes in the relation between self-concepts and ideal concepts consequent upon client centered counseling. In C. R. Rogers & R. F. Dymond (Eds.). PSYCHOTHERAPY AND PERSONALITY CHANGE: COORDINATED STUDIES IN THE CLIENTCENTERED APPROACH, 55-76. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

BUTT, D. S. (1988). THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT: THE BEHAVIOR, MOTIVATION, PERSONALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF ATHLETES (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

BUTTERFIELD, E. L., & SIPERSTEIN, G. N. (1972). Influence of contingent auditory stimulation on nonnutritional sucking. In J. Bosma (Ed.), ORAL SENSATION AND PERCEPTION: THE MOUTH OF THE INFANT. Springfield, IL: Charles B. Thomas.

CAIN, W. S. (1988). Olfaction. In R. C. Atkinson, R. J. Hernstein, G. Lindzey, & R. D. Luce (Eds.), STEVENS' HANDBOOK OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 1). New York: Wiley, 409-459.

CAMPOS, J. J., BARRETT, K. C., LAMB, M. E., GOLDSMITH, H. H., & STENBERG, C. (1983). Socioemotional development. In P. Mussen (Ed.), HANDBOOK OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 1, 1- 101). New York: Wiley.

CANTOR, N., MARKUS, H., NIEDENTHAL P., & NURIUS, P. (1986). On motivation and the selfconcept. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.). HANDBOOK OF MOTIVATION AND COGNITION: FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR (pp. 96-121). New York: Guilford.

CAREY, G., & GOTTESMAN, I. I. (1981). Twin and family studies of anxiety, phobic, and obsessive disorders. In D. F. Klein & J. Rabkin (Eds.). ANXIETY: NEW RESEARCH AND CHANGING CONCEPTS. New York: Haven Press.

CARLSON, N. R. (1988). FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

CARLSON, N. R. (1986). PHYSIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR, (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. CARLSON, W. R. (1986). PHYSIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. CARROLL, D. W. (1985). PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. CARROLL, J. B. (1988). Individual differences in cognitive functioning. In R. C. Atkinson, R. J.

Herrnstein, G. Lindzey, & R. D. Luce (Eds.). STEVENS' HANDBOOK OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 2). New York: Wiley.

CARSON, R. C. & BUTCHER, J. N. (1992). ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY AND MODERN LIFE. Glenview. IL: Scott, Foresman & Co.

CARSTENSEN, L. L., & NEALE, J. M. (1989). MECHANISMS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL INFLUENCE ON PHYSICAL HEALTH. New York: Plenum.

CARTERETTE, E. C., & FRIEDMAN, M. P. (Eds.) (1974-1978) HANDBOOK OF PERCEPTION, Vols. 1-11. New York: Academic Press.

CARVER, C. S., & SCHEIER, M. F. (1981). ATTENTION AND SELF-REGULATION: A CONTROL THEORY APPROACH TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR. New York: Springer-Verlag.

CASE, R. (1985). INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT: A SYSTEMATIC REINTERPRETATION. New York: Academic Press.

CATTELL, R. В (1957). PERSONALITY AND MOTIVATION STRUCTURE AND MEASUREMENT. Yonkers-on-Hudson, NY: World Publishers.

CATTELL, R. B. (1966). THE SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY. Chicago: Aldine. CHAIKEN, S. (1987). The heuristic model of persuasion. In M. P. Zanna, J. N. Olson, & C. P.

Herman (Eds.), SOCIAL INFLUENCE: THE ONTARIO SYMPOSIUM (Vol. 5, pp. 3-39). Hillsdale. NJ. Erlbaum.

CHASE, W. G., & SIMON, H. A. (1973a). The mind's eye in chess. In W. G. Chase (Ed.), VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING. New York: Academic Press.

CHAUDURI, H. (1965). PHILOSOPHY OF MEDITATION, New York: Philosophical Library. CHESS, S., & THOMAS, A. (1984). ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIOR DISORDERS.

INFANCY TO EARLY ADULT LIFE. New York: Brunner/Nazel.

CHI, M. (1978). Knowledge structures and memory development. In R. S. Siegler (Ed.), CHILDREN'S THINKING: WHAT DEVELOPS? Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.

CHI, M., GLASER, R., & REES, E. (1982). Expertise in problem solving. In R. Sternberg (Ed.). ADVANCES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN INTELLIGENCE (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

CHOMSKY, N. (1965). ASPECTS OF THE THEORY OF SYNTAX. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. CHOMSKY, N. (1972). LANGUAGE AND MIND (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich.

CHOMSKY, N. (1980) RULES AND REPRESENTATIONS. New York: Columbia University

Press.

CHOMSKY, N. (1991, March). Quoted in DISCOVER.

CHRISTIE, R., & JOHODA, M. (Eds.). (1954). STUDIES IN THE SCOPE AND METHOD OF THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY. New York: Free Press.

CHURCHLAND, P. M. (1988). MATTER AND CONSCIOUSNESS. Cambridge: MIT Press. CHURCHLAND, P. M. (1995) THE ENGINE OF REASON, THE SEAT OF THE SOUL

(Cambridge: MIT Press).

CLARK, D. M. (1988). A cognitive model of panic attacks. In S. Rachman & J. D. Maser (Eds.), PANIC: PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

CLARK, D. M., & BECK, A. T. (1988). Cognitive approaches. In C. G. Last & M. Hersen (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF ANXIETY DISORDERS. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.

CLARK, E. V. (1983). Meanings and concepts. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), HANDBOOK OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 3). New York: Wiley.

CLARK, H. H. (1984). Language use and language users. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), THE HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 2, 3rd. ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

CLARK, H. H., & CLARK, E. V. (1977). PSYCHOLOGY AND LANGUAGE: AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLINGUISTICS. New York: Harcourt Brace.

COHEN, S. (1980, September). Training to understand TV advertising: Effects and some policy implications. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association convention, Montreal.

COHEN, S., & EDWARDS, J. R. (1989). Personality characteristics as moderators of the relationship between stress and disorder. In R. J. Neufeld (Ed.), ADVANCES IN THE INVESTIGATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS (pp. 235-283). New York: Wiley.

COMREY, A. L., & LEE, H. B. (1992). A FIRST COURSE IN FACTOR ANALYSIS (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

COOPER, L. A., & SHEPARD, R. N. (1973). Chronometric studies of the rotation of mental images. In W. G. Chase (Ed.). VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING. New York: Academic Press.

COOPER. L. M. (1979). Hypnotic amnesia. In E. Fromm & R. E. Shor (Eds.), HYPNOSIS: DEVELOPMENTS IN RESEARCH AND NEW PERSPECTIVES (rev. ed.). New York: Aldine.

CORBETTA, M., MIEZIN, F.M., SHULMAN, G. L. PETERSEN, S. E. (1991). Selective attention modulates extrastriate visual regions in humans during visual feature discrimination and recognition. In: CIBA FOUNDATION SYMPOSIUM 163, EXPLORING BRAIN FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY WITH POSITRON TOMOGRAPHY (CHADWICK, D. J., WHELAN, J., Eds.) pp. 165-180. Chichester: Wiley.

COREN, S., & WARD, L. M. (1989). SENSATION & PERCEPTION (3rd ed.). San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

CORSINI, R. J. (1984). CURRENT PSYCHOTHERAPIES (3rd ed.). Itasca, IL: Peacock. COSCINA, D. V, & DIXON, L. M. (1983). Body weight regulation in anorexia nervosa: Insights

from an animal model. In F. L. Darby, P. E. Garfinkel, D. M. Garner, & D. V. Coscina, (Eds.). ANOREXIA NERVOSA: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS. New York: Allan R. Liss.

COSTA, E. (1985). Benzodiazepine/GABA interactions: A model to investigate the neurobiology of anxiety. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), ANXIETY AND THE ANXIETY DISORDERS, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

COSTA, Р. Т., & MCCRAE, R. R. (1980). Still stable after all thee years: Personality as a key to some issues in aging. In P. B. Bolles & O. G. Brim (Eds.) LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR

(Vol. 3). New York: Academic Press.

COTTRELL, N. B. (1972). Social facilitation. In C. G. McClintock (Ed.), EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

COX, R. H., QIU, Y, & LIU, Z. (1993). Overview of sport psychology. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L. K. Tennant (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON SPORT PSYCHOLOGY. New York: MacMillan.

CRASILNECK, H. В., & HALL, J.A. (1985). CLINICAL HYPNOSIS: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS (2nd ed.). Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton.

CRAWFORD, H. J. (1989). Cognitive and physiological flexibility: Multiple pathways to hypnotic responsiveness. In V. A. Gheorghiu, P. Netter, H. J. Eysenck, & R. Rosenthal (Eds.), SUGGESTION AND SUGGESTIBILITY: THEORY AND RESEARCH. New York: Springer-Verlag.

CREESE. L, BURT, D. R., & SYNDER, S. H. (1978). Biomechanical actions of neuroleptic drugs. In L. L. Iversen, S. D. Iversen, & S. H. Snyder (Eds.), HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY (Vol. 10). New York: Plenum.

CRICK, F. (1994). THE ASTONISHING HYPOTHESIS: THE SCIENTIFIC SEARCH FOR THE SOUL. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.

DAMASIO, A. R. (1985). Disorders of complex visual processing: Agnosia, achromatopsia, Balint's syndrome, and related difficulties of orientation and construction. In M. M. Mesulam (Ed.). PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIORAL NEUROLOGY, 259-288. Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis Company.

DAMON, W. (1977). THE SOCIAL WORLD OF THE CHILD. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. DAMON, W. (1983). SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT. New York: Norton &

Company.

DARIAN-SMITH, I. (Ed.) (1984). HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: SECTION 1. VOL. 3. SENSORY PROCESSES. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society.

DARO, D. (1988). CONFRONTING CHILD ABUSE. New York: The Free Press. DARWIN, C. (1859). ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SPECIES. London: Murray.

DARWIN, C. (1872). THE EXPRESSION OF EMOTION IN MAN AND ANIMALS. New York: Philosophical Library.

DASHIELL, J. F. (1935). Experimental studies of the influence of social situations on the behavior of individual human adults. In C. Murchison (Ed.). HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. Worcester, NA: Clark University.

DAVIDSON, G. C. & NEALE. J. M. (1990). ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

DEPUE, R. A., & IACONO, W. G. (1989). Neurobehavioral aspects of affective disorders. In M. R. Rosenzweig & L. W. Porter (Eds.), ANNUAL REVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 40). Palo Alto. CA: Annual Reviews, Inc.

DEVALOIS, R. L. & JACOBS, G. H. (1984). Neural mechanisms of color vision. In I. Darian-Smith (Ed.). HANDBOOK OF PHYSIOLOGY (Vol. 3). Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society.

DIENER, E. (1980). Deindividuation: The absence of self-awareness and self-regulation in group members. In P. B. Paulus (Ed.), THE PSYCHOLOGY OF GROUP INFLUENCE. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

DIMATTEO, M. R. (1991). THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND MEDICAL CARE — AN INDIVIDUAL PERSPECTIVE. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/ Cole.

DOLLARD, J., DOOB, L. W., MILLER, N. E., MOWRER, O. H,, & SEARS, R. R. (1939). FRUSTRATION AND AGGRESSION. New Haven: Yale University Press.

DOMJAN, M., & BURKHARD, B. (1986). THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

DOYLE, A. C. (1892/1981). THE ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATED SHERLOCK HOLMES. Secaucus, NJ; Castle Books. (Originally published in America by Harper & Bros, in McClure's Magazine, 1893).

DUNN, J., & PLOMIN, R. (1990), SEPARATE LIVES: WHY SIBLINGS ARE SO DIFFERENT. New York: Basic Books.

EAGLE, M. N. (1984). RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PSYCHOANALYSIS: A CRITICAL EVALUATION. New York: McGraw-Hill.

EAGLY, A. H., & CHAIKEN, S. (1984). Cognitive theories of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 17, pp. 267-359), New York: Academic Press.

EBBINGHAUS, H. (1885). Uber das Gedachthis, Leipzig: Dunckes and Humblot.

EGAN, J. P. (1975). SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY AND ROC ANALYSIS. New York: Academic Press.

EICHORN, D. H., CLAUSSEN, J. A., HAAN, N., HONZIK, M. P., & MUSSEN, P. H. (Eds.) (1981). PRESENT AND PAST IN MIDDLE LIFE. New York: Academic Press.

EIMAS, P. D. (1975). Speech perception in early infancy. In L. B. Cohen & P. Salapatek (Eds.), INFANT PERCEPTION: FROM SENSATION TO COGNITION (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.

EKMAN, P. (1982). EMOTION IN THE HUMAN FACE (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.

EKMAN, P. (1985). TELLING LIES; CLUES TO DECEIT IN THE MARKETPLACE, POLITICS, AND MARRIAGE. New York: Norton.

EKSTROM, R. В., FRENCH, J. W., HARMAN, H. H., & DERNAN, D. (1976). MANUAL FOR KIT OF FACTOR-REFERENCED COGNITIVE TESTS, 1976. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

EKSTROM, R. В., FRENCH, J. W., & HARMAN, H. H. (1979). Cognitive factors: Their identification and replication. MULTIVARIATE BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH MONOGRAPHS. Ft. Worth, TX: Society for Multivariate Experimental Psychology.

ELLIS, H. C., & HUNT, R. R. (1989). FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN MEMORY AND COGNITION (4th ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown.

ELLSWORTH, P. (1991). Some implications of cognitive appraisals on theories of emotion. In К. Т. Strongman (Ed.)., INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF STUDIES ON EMOTION (Vol. 1). New York: Wiley.

ELMES, D. G., KANTOWITZ, B. H., & ROEDIGER. H. L. (1989). RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (3rd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West.

ENDLER, N. S. (1982). HOLIDAY OF DARKNESS. New York: Wiley. ENGEN, T. (1982). THE PERCEPTION OF ODORS. New York: Academic Press.

EPSTEIN, A. (1982). The physiology of thirst. In D. W. Pfaff (Ed.), PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF MOTIVATION. (pp. 25-55). New York: Springer-Verlag.

EPSTEIN, S. (1977). Traits are alive and well. In D. Magnusson & N. S. Endler (Eds.), PERSONALITY AT THE CROSSROADS: CURRENT ISSUES IN INTERACTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

ERDELYI, M. H. (1985). PSYCHOANALYSIS: FREUD & COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY. New York: Freeman.

ERICSSON, K. A., & SIMON, H. A. (1993). PROTOCOL ANALYSIS: VERBAL REPORTS AS DATA (rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

ERIKSON, E. H. (1963). CHILDHOOD AND SOCIETY (2nd ed.). New York: Norton. ERIKSON, E. H. (1968) IDENTITY: YOUTH AND CRISIS. New York: Norton.

ERVIN-TRIPP, S. (1964). Imitation and structural change in children's language. In E. H. Lenneberg (Ed.), NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

ESTERSON, A. (1993). SEDUCTIVE MIRAGE: AN EXPLORATION OF THE WORK OF SIGMUND FREUD. Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company.

ESTES, W. K. (1972). An associative basis for coding and organization in memory. In A. W. Melton & E. Martin (Eds.). CODING PROCESSES IN HUMAN MEMORY. Washington, DC: Winston.

ESTES, W. K. (Ed.). (1975-1979) HANDBOOK OF LEARNING AND COGNITIVE PROCESSES (Vols. 1-6). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

ETCOPF, N. L. (1985). The neuropsychology of emotional expression. In G. Goldstein & R. E. Tarter, (Eds.), ADVANCES IN CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 3). New York: Plenum.

EVANS, C. (1984). LANDSCAPES OF THE NIGHT: HOW AND WHY WE DREAM. New York: Viking.

EXNER, J. (1986). THE RORSCHACH: A COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM (2nd ed., Vol. 1). New York: Wiley.

EYSENCK, H. J. (1953). THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN PERSONALITY. New York: Wiley. EYSENCK, H. J. (1990). Biological dimensions of personality. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.). HANDBOOK

OF PERSONALITY: THEORY AND RESEARCH (pp. 244-276). New York: Guilford Press.

EYSENCK, H. J., & EYSENCK, S. B. G. (1976), PSYCHOTICISM AS A DIMENSION OF PERSONALITY. London: Hoder & Stroughton.

EYSENCK, H. J., & KAMIN, L. (1981). THE INTELLIGENCE CONTROVERSY, New York:

Wiley.

EYSENCK, H. J., & RACHMAN, S. (1965). THE CAUSES AND CURES OF NEUROSIS: AN