23. Complex sentence. Structural classification of complex sentence

A simple sentence contains one predication. It is monopredicative. A composite sentence is polypredicative. It contains two or more predications, or clauses. Structurally a clause may not differ from a sentence, and in many cases clauses can be turned into sentences. Functionally they differ essentially: a sentence is an independent utterance, a clause is part of the smallest utterance.

Clauses in a composite sentence arc joined by coordination or subordination. Coordinate clauses are equal in rank. (compound sentences) A subordinate clause usually serves as an adjunct to some head-word in the principle clause. ( complex sentences) There are also structures with coordination and subordination.

Besides simple and composite sentences there are structures which are called semi-composite (осложненные). Here belong sentences with homogeneous subjects or predicates (semi-compound) - ( compound predicate) and sentences with secondary predications (semi-complex). - ( predicative constructions and detached attributes).

Thus, syntactic positions in a sentence may be filled in:

1) by words or phrases (simple sentence)

is necessary in do it.

2) be secondary predications (semi-composite sentence)

It is necessary for him to do it.

3) by clauses (complex sentence)

It is necessary that he should do it.

Clauses may be connected by special connective words (syndetically) or without them (asyndetically). Connectives may be subdivided into two main groups: conj and conjunctive pronouns and adverbs. Conjunctions perform the connective function only. Conjunctive words, belonging to other parts of speech, are notional constituents of clauses: I wonder who told you about it. (Who connects clauses and it is the subject of the subordinate clause).

The non-positional subordinators are referred to as pure conjunctions. Here belong such words as since, before, until, if, in case, because, so that, in order that, though, however, than, as if, etc. The positional subordinators are in fact conjunctive substitutes. The main positional subordinators are the pronominal words who, what, whose, which, that, where, when, why, as. Some of these words are double-functional (bifunctional), entering also the first set of subordinators; such are the words where, when, that, as, used both as conjunctive substitutes and conjunctions.

The distinction between coordination and subordination may be very vague, especially in asyndetic sentences:

You are an architect, you ought to know all about it.

There is a view that coordination and subordination are clearly distinguished only in syndetic sentences and asyndetic sentences cannot be divided into compound and complex.

But there are structures, both syndetic and asyndetic, admitting of different interpretations.

The functional character of the subordinative connector is so explicit that even in traditional grammatical descriptions of complex sentences this connector was approached as a transformer of an independent sentence into a subordinate clause. Cf.:

Moyra left the room. — (I do remember quite well) that Moyra left the room. — (He went on with his story) after Moyra left the room. — (Fred remained in his place) though Moyra left the room. — (The party was spoilt) because Moyra left the room. — (It was a surprise to us all) that Moyra left the room...

The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. It is derived from two or more base sentences one of which performs the role of a matrix in relation to the others, the insert sentences. The matrix function of the corresponding base sentence may be more rigorously and less rigorously pronounced, depending on the type of subordinative connection realized.

When joined into one complex sentence, the matrix base sentence becomes the principal clause of it and the insert sentences, its subordinate clauses.

The Complex sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses — a principal one and a subordinate one. Although the principal clause positionally dominates the subordinate clause, the two form a semantico-syntactic unity within the framework of which they are in fact interconnected, so that the very existence of either of them is supported by the existence of the other.

The classification of complex sentences is usually based on the classification of subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses are classified either on analogy with classes of words (categorial classification) or on analogy with parts of the sentence (functional classification).

According to the categorial classification subordinate clauses are to be classed by their inherent nominative properties irrespective of their immediate positional relations in the sentence. The nominative properties of notional words are reflected in their part-of-speech classification. From the point of view of their general nominative features all the subordinate clauses can be divided into three categorial-semantic groups. The first group includes clauses that name an event as a certain fact. These pure fact- clauses may be terminologically defined as "substantive- nominal".

That his letters remained unanswered annoyed him very much. — That fact annoyed him very much.

The second group of clauses also name an event-fact, but, as different from the first group, this event-fact is referred to as giving a characteristic to some substantive entity are called "qualification-nominal".

The man who came in the morning left a message. — That man left a message.

Finally, the third group of clauses makes their event- nomination into a dynamic relation characteristic of another, event or a process or a quality of various descriptions- these clauses are "adverbial".

Describe the picture as you see it. — Describe the picture in the manner you see it

But as words of the same class may perform different syntactic functions, the functional classification seems preferable.

The functional principle, subordinate clauses are to be classed on the analogy of the positional parts of the simple sentence, since it is the structure of the simple sentence that underlies the essential structure of the complex sentence (located on a higher level). The said analogy, certainly, is far from being absolute, because no subordinate clause can exactly repeat the specific character of the corresponding non-clausal part of the sentence; moreover, there is a deep difference in the functional status even between different categorial types of the same parts of the sentence, one being expressed by a word-unit, another by a word-group, still another by a substitute. Cf.: You can see my state. — You can see my wretched state. -You can see my state being wretched. — You can see that my state is wretched. — You can see that. —»What can you see?

A subordinate clause can occupy any position but that of the predicate (though it may fill in the position of the predicative). It should be also noted that there is no complete similarity between parts of the sentence and subordinate clauses. Especially this is the' case with adverbial clauses.

There is a correlation between categorial and functional classifications.

The classification of complex sentences may be also hased on the type of clausal connection, which may be close or loose, obligatory or optional.

Sentences with obligatory clausal connection fall into several types:

1. Sentences with Subject and Predicative clauses. The subordinate clause occupies a syntactic position in the predication. It is fused, or merged with the principal clause, which is incomplete semantically and structurally: What you say is true.

The Subject clause expresses the theme on the upper level of the actual division of the complex sentence. It’s used as a frame for an independent sentence. E. g.: You just get yourselves into trouble is what happens.

The predicate clause performs the function of the nominal part ofthe predicate, i. e. the part adjoining the link-verb. The trouble is that I don't know Fanny personally.

2. Sentences with Object clauses. The subordinate clause is obligatory due to the obligatory valency of the predicate verb in the main clause. She stared at what seemed a faded photo of Uncle Jo taken half a century before.

3. Sentences in which there are correlative elements in both main and subordinate clauses (hardly... when: as... as; the more... the more): He was so tired, that ...

Some attributive and adverbial clauses are loosely connected with the main clause and may be optional.

Composite sentences may include a number of coordinate and subordinate clauses.