27. Semantic structure of the sentence

Every linguistic unit may be analyzed either from the form to the meaning or from the signification to the means of expression. Traditionally sentence analysis starts from syntactic structure. It is possible, however, to start with the semantic representation and then relate constituents of the semantic (underlying, deep- kernel sentence) structure to the constituents of the grammatical (surface) structure.

Semantic model of sentence analysis is rooted in:

1. Valency theory. The father of it is Tesnier in his work “ Elements de syntaxe structurele”.(1959)

2. Case grammar- first introduced by the representatives of generative grammar. Case Grammar was devised by Charles Fillmore in “ The Case for Case” (1968). “ The Case for Case Reopened” (1977);

3. Semantic classification of W. Chate And gis worh “ Meaning and Structure of bLanguage” (1975)

4. Upgrading of the theory –Downing and Loche;

5. Compositional Syntax- prof Bagushevich;

Semantically, the sentence was described by Fillmore as Preposition + Modality, where

Preposition –is a tenseless set of relationships of semantic arguments ( or participants) to the semantic predicate [ V+arg1+arg2..= V+N1+N2+N3…] ;

Modality- is features of mood, tense, aspect, negation, relating to the sentence as a whole.

The proposition is a reflection of situations and events of the outside world. The semantic predicate determines the number of arguments, or opens up places for arguments. Accordingly we may distinguish one-place predicates (She sang), two-place predicates (She broke the dish) and so on. Arguments are in different semantic relations to the predicate. These relations are called semantic roles or deep cases (P+V+C1+c2+c3 ...). The choice of semantic roles depends or the nature of the predicate.

Semantic roles, or deep cases are judgments about the events, such as: Who did it? Who did it happen to? What got changed?

The most general, roles are agent (doer of the action) and patient (affected by the action or state). Actions are accompanied by agents, states and processes — by patients; predicates, denoting both actions and processes — by agents and patients: She broke the dish.

The original set of deep cases, proposed Ch. Fillmore, includes 6 cases: agentive, objective, beneficiary, instrument, locative, factitive. Eg.:

1. He dug the. ground. (Objective)

2. He dug a hole. (Factitive)

Sentences (1) and (2) have the same surface structure, but different deep structure. On the other hand different syntactic structures may refer to the same deep structure:

1. John opened the door with the- key.

2. The door was opened by John.

3. John used the key to open the door. (4) The key opened the door.

The original set of deep Cases by Bogdanov is 14Cases, by Apresyan- 25 Cases.

Most universally accepted types:

• Agent- doer of the action ( Tom kicked the ball);

• Object- smth affected by the action or state ( Tom dug the ground);

• Patient- smb affected by the action or state ( TO) (I gave to/- children some sweets;

• Beneficiary- smb, who gains in the result of the action (for) (Will you bring for/- me a paper?);

• Factitive/ Result- smth that didn’t exist before but come into being as a result of the action ( Tom dug the hole. Mary baked a cake);

• Instrument- smth the action is performed with (with) (Tom cut a rose with a knife);

• Locative- location ( Chicago is a windy city;

• Temporative- time ( Yesterday was a busy day);

• Force (elementative)- ( The storm ruined the house);

Semantic modal- is a model of a sentence as a nominative unit, so it’s a model of the meaning of a sentence. ( What do sentence mean- Situations, events). Semantically, a clause is a pattern of experience, presented as a situational type.

Elements of situation:

• Processes: material, mental, relational;

• Participants: animate, inanimate, abstract, entities;

• Circumstances: time, place, manner of the whole situation;

• Attributes: qualities or circumstances of the participants;

Elements of the semantic structure:

• Semantic predicates- verbs devoid of any forms;

• Nominal elements: semantic arguments/ deep sentence cases ( semantic rules);

• Circumstances;

• Attributes;

Participants are named by attributes. They are in different semantic relations to the predicate; they are judgments about the events, such as: Who did it? Who did it happen to? What got changed?

Semantic predicate determines the number and types of its arguments. Classification according to the number of arguments involved Valency. Chate takes into account the typical case-frame and semantic features of the Verb.

Syntactico-semantic classification:

• State- only one participant, which is not active ( The wood is dry);

• Process ( The wood dried);

• Actions- conscious and active activity ( Harriet sang);

• Actions-processes- involve 2 participants and there’s “direction” of the action. Conscious effort performed by one of the participants ( Michael dried the wood);

• Ambient states- (It’s hot);

• Ambient actions – (It’s raining);

Classification according to the type of process named by the predicate ( Halliday-then Downing and Loche-it considers reality, not only the linguistic features):

• Material- a process of doing ( do, run, paint) ( Tom kicked the ball);

• Mental- experiencing or sensing ( see, watch, fell) (The news pleased me);

• Relational- of being or becoming ( seem, stand, become) (The play was a success);

• Verbal – the process of speaking ( Teel, say) ( Mary told me a secret);

• Existential- to state the existence of smth ( There remains one problem);

There are some other smaller groups.

Predicates determine the type of their arguments:

• Material- are accompanied by agents and sometimes objects (Birds fly);

• States and processes- by agents and patients/objects ( She broke the dish);

• Mental processes- by the experienser and the phenomenon which is experienced (Tom knows the answer) ( Mary heard the noise);

There is no direct correspondence between the elements of the syntax and semantic level.

Bob( Subj) opened the door(Obj) with the key(prepositional obj).-syntax

Bob(Agent) opened the door(Obj) with the key(Instrument) -semantic

The key(Subj) opened the door(Obj).-syntax

• The key(Instrument) opened the door(Obj).-semantic

Tom(Subj) knows the answer(Obj).- syntax

Tom(expirienser) knows the answer(Phenomenon)/-semantic

So, sentence structure can be described in terms of:

• Part of speech or syntactic members of the sentence-the formal structure of the sentence, surface language level;

• Types of nominal elements (deep cases) and types of semantic predicates-preposition, deep language level;

• Types of participants and types of processes- situation, cognitive level;