26. Transformational modal

Different sentence types are structurally and semantically related. So, the syntactic structure of a given sentence may be described by making these relations explicit.

Sentences, in which all constructions are obligatory, are called basic structures, or elementary sentences, or kernel sentences. Linguists single out from 2 to 7 kernel sentences:

1. NV; 2. NVN; 3. NVPrepN; 4. N is N; 5. N is A; 6. N is Adv. 7. N is PrepN;

The structure of all other sentences may be explained as a result of certain changes, or transformations of kernel structures. This analysis, showing derivational relations of sentences, is called transformational (TM).

As opposed to the distributional model, the immediate constituents model, and the dependency tree, which deal with isolated sentences, the transformational model (TM) of Z.S. Harris and N. Chomsky discloses the existing relations between various sentence types (e.g. positive - negative, declarative - interrogative, etc.). Transformational analysis begins with the assumption that certain sentences are basic or kernel and other sentences are derived from them by means of transformational rules. The fundamental aim in the linguistic analysis of a language is to find a set of transformational rules (that make up the grammar of the language) by which all the grammatical, and only grammatical, sentences of the language can be generated.

'Grammatical' means simply 'corresponding to the grammar'. The native speaker of a language has a set of rules in his mind, an internal grammar, so to speak, which enables him to judge whether a given sentence is grammatical or not. It is this intuitive knowledge of the language as a system that enables the native speaker to produce and understand sentences which he may have never said or heard before. So, structuralists rely on their own intuition as speakers of English in distinguishing between grammatical and ungrammatical constructions.

All kernel sentences contain two main parts: a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP): S —» NP + VP. This formula, according to P. Roberts, means not only that a kernel consists of a NP and a VP, but that the NP comes first and the VP second; in other words, all kernel sentences are declarative. Kernels are few in number. Z.S. Harris mentions 7 types of kernel sentences in the English language.

NV: He paused (J. Joyce).

NVN: She left the room (A. Christie).

NVPN: Barbara looked at Peter (E. Blyton).

N is N: Tony is a student (V. Evans).

N is A: Susan is American (V. Evans).

N is PN: She is from London (V. Evans).

N is D: Their secret is out (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).

R.B. Lees thinks that the basic structures may be reduced to two: NV and N is N/A.

IC analysis is supplemented with rules for transforming one sentence into another. So, a set of kernel sentences is established. A kernel sentence is a sentence that contains only obligatory Members. Kernel sentences, as basic structures, are characterized by a high frequency of occurrence. Transformed sentences are naturally more rare.

TM describes paradigmatic relations of basic and divided structures, or the relations of syntactic derivation. Kernel sentences, which serve as the base for deriving other structures, are called deep or underlying structures, opposed to surface structures of derived sentence types, or transforms. So, both the deep and the surface structure belong to the syntactic level of analysis.

Transformation may be subdivided into intermodal, or single base (one-base) and two-base.

• One-base transformations (changing 1 kernel structure-different types)-changing the kernel structure;

• Two-base transformations ( combing 2 kernel structures- different types);

One-base transformation may be of 2 types: modifying the kernel structure and changing the kernel structure. Some basic types of intramodel transformations: substitution, deletion ( Have you seen him?-Seen him?); permutation( or movement) (He is here-Is he here?); nominalization ( He arrived-His arrival); extending/ expanding.

Two-base transformation can be: embedding ( I know that he has come); word sharing ( I saw him cross the street).

Tm shows that sentences with different surface structures paraphrase, because they are derived from the same deep structure.

He arrived-his arrival-for him to arrive-his arrival

The TM helps to decide grammatical ambiguity: 1 surface structure can be derived from different deep structures.

Flying planes can be dangerous.

Planes are dangerous.

Flying is dangerous.

A grammar, which operates using TM is a transformational grammar (TG). In TG the IC-analysis is supplement with rules for transforming one sentence into another. TG became an extremely influential type of generative grammatical theory, also called generative grammar.

Thу status and classification of transformations varied a great deal in the 1960-s and 1970-s, and several models of generative grammar have been investigated, following N.Chomsky.