Английский язык учебник
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in the communicative process are constantly changing places. Any exchange of information between them is possible only under the conditions of the intersubjec tivity of the sign, i.e. if the signs and, more important ly, the meanings fixed in them are known to all partici pants in the communicative process. Only by the accep tance of a single system of meaning can the mutual un derstanding of the partners be ensured. Social psycho logy borrows the linguistic term “thesaurus” for the description of this situation, signifying a common sys tem of meanings accepted by all members of the group. But even knowing the meaning of the same words, people can have a different notion about them. Social, political and age differences are all po tential reasons for this. Lev Vygotsky noted that “the idea is never equal to the meaning of the word”. Therefore, in speech forms of communication the participants must possess an identical understand ing of the situation of communication as well as identical lexical and syntactical systems. This is possible only with the inclusion of communication in a certain general system of activities.
Finally, specifically communicative barriers may arise in human communication. These barriers are not in any way connected with vulnerable positions in channels of communication or with errors in coding and decoding. They possess a sociological and psycho logical character. On the one hand, such barriers can arise due to the absence of a common understanding of the situation of communication, caused not merely by the various “languages” of the participants in the com municative process, but also by the distinctions of a deeper nature, existing between partners. These dis tinctions can be social, political, religious and profes sional, providing for different interpretations of the same concepts used in the process of communication, as well as various world outlooks. Such barriers are caused by objective social reasons, such as the member
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ship of the partners in different social groups. When such distinctions surface, the inclusion of communication in a wider system of social relations comes into the limelight. The process of communication is, of course, realized despite the existence of these barriers; even military enemies conduct negotiations. But the whole system of the act of communication is complicated to a significant degree because of these barriers.
On the other hand, barriers in communication can have a more obviously expressed psychological charac ter. They can arise on account of the individual psy chological peculiarities of the communicating persons (excessive timidity, reticence of insociability, for in stance), or due to a special type of psychological rela tions formed between them: hostility towards each other, distrust, and so on. In this instance, the connec tion between communication and relation absent in cy bernetic systems, emerges rather distinctly. This posits the question on learning the rules of communication, in socio psychological training.
The stated peculiarities of human communication do not allow it to be considered only in terms of the theory of information. Certain terms of the given theo ry used for the description of this process require to be reconsidered. However, this does not exclude the possi bility of borrowing some concepts from the theory of information. The concept of the “purposefulness of signals” can be used, for instance, in the construction of a typology of communicative processes. In the theo ry of communication this term can be divided into a) the axial communicative process, when the signals are directed towards a single receptor of the information, that is, towards individual people, and b) the retial communicative process, when the signals are directed towards a large number of addressees. The research of retial communicative process acquires a special signi ficance in the conditions of scientific and technologi
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cal revolution in connection with the huge develop ment of mass information. In this instance, a social orientation of the participants as well as the simple transfer of communication takes place, since the dis patching of the signals to the group forces the recipi ents to realize their belonging to the group. The ability of communication to create such an orientation testi fies to the fact that the essence of the given process cannot be described only in terms of the information theory. The distribution of information in society goes through a unique “filter” of “trust” and “distrust”. This filter works in such a way that absolutely true in formation can be considered unacceptable and false in formation, acceptable. It is extremely important psy chologically to explain under what circumstances one channel of information or another can be blocked by this filter. On the other hand, the means exist to aid in the acceptance of this information and to weaken the operation of the filters. Fascination fills this role, cre ating a certain supplementary “background”, on which the basic information takes precedence, since the “background” partially overcomes the filter of “mis trust”. An example of fascination might be speech ac companied by music or light effects.
The information origination with the communi cator can take on two forms: motivational and ascer taining.
Motivational information is expressed in orders, advice and requests. It is formulated in order to stimu late some sort of action. Stimulation can assume vari ous forms. It can be activation, i.e. inducement to an action in a set direction; interdiction, i.e. also induce ment but of a kind that prohibits unwanted types of ac tivity, and destabilization, the discord or disruption of certain autonomous forms of behaviour or activities.
Ascertaining information emerges in the form of communication. It is found in different educational systems and does not presuppose an immediate change
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of behaviour, although in the final account, the gene ral rule of human communication applies in this in stance, too. The character of communication itself can vary: it can be extremely “neutral” or presupposing an active position of the communicator.
The transfer of any information is only possible through the use of signs, more precisely a system of signs. There are several systems of signs applied in the communicative process and the classification of com municative processes can be effected in relation to these systems. Verbal communication (the system of signs using speech) and non verbal communication (the system expressed through unspoken signs) are two groups in a somewhat rough division. The research of recent years has provided a wealth of material in re gard to the forms of non verbal communication. Pres ently, there are four forms that can be set off: kinetic, paralinguistic, proximic and visual communication. Each of these groups has its own system of signs and therefore, for all practical purposes, there are five types of communicative processes.
Verbal communication uses human speech as its system of signs. It is a system of phonetic signs which includes two principles: lexical and syntactical. Speech is the universal means of communication, because du ring the transfer of information through speech, the least amount of meaning is lost. A high degree of com munality of the awareness of the situation is necessary in this instance on the part of all participants in the communicative process. The coding and decoding of in formation is realized by means of speech. The commu nicator codifies information in the process of speak ing, and the recipient decodes it in the process of lis tening.
Galina Andreeva. Social Psychology, pp. 82–91
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TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
Introduction ....................................................... |
3 |
Unit I. Intelligence .............................................. |
7 |
Unit II. Creativity ............................................. |
42 |
Unit III. Imagination ......................................... |
72 |
Unit IV. Memory and Attention ........................... |
99 |
Unit V. Emotions ............................................. |
126 |
Unit VI. Theories of Personality ........................ |
161 |
Unit VII. Depression ......................................... |
190 |
Unit VIII. Motivation........................................ |
234 |
Unit IX. Temperament ...................................... |
272 |
Unit X. Character ............................................ |
309 |
Unit XI. Abilities ............................................. |
345 |
Unit XII. Language .......................................... |
381 |
Unit XIII. Social Interaction and Influence ........... |
406 |
Unit XIV. The Exceptional Child? ....................... |
441 |
Unit XV. Substance Dependence ......................... |
473 |
SUPPLEMENTARY READING .......................... |
503 |
Учебное издание
Бочарова Галина Валентиновна Никошкова Елена Владимировна Печкурова Зоя Вениаминовна Степанова Мария Георгиевна
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК ДЛЯ ПСИХОЛОГОВ
Учебное пособие
Под ред. Е.В. Никошковой
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