Методичка для социологов

The parents are likely to have more physical energy (for example, they can cope better with such matters as getting up in the middle of the night with infants and waiting up until adolescents come home at night);

the mother is likely to have fewer medical problems with pregnancy and childbirth;

the parents may be less likely to build up expectations for their children, as do many couples who have waited many years to have children.

By contrast, there are also advantages to having children late:

The parents will have had more time to consider their goals in life, such as what they want from their family and career roles;

the parents will be more mature and will be able to benefit from their life experiences to engage in more competent parenting;

and the parents will be better established in their careers and have more income for child-rearing expenses.

WOMEN’S PLACE IN THE WORLD

What are the political, economic, educational, and psychological conditions of women around the world? Frances Culbertson, president of the Clinical Psychology of Women section of the American Psychological Association, recently summarized these conditions.

Women and Politics

In politics, too often women are treated like burdens rather than assets. Especially in developing countries, women marry early and have many children quickly, in many cases before their undernourished bodies have an opportunity to mature. In such developing countries, women need greater access to education, work, health care, and especially family planning. Some experts on women’s issues believe that these needs would have a better chance of being met if women were more strongly represented at the decision-making and managerial levels of governments and international organizations. For example, in 1990, less than 10 per cent of the members of national legislatures were women, and for every 100 ministerial-level positions around the world only 5 were filled by women.

Women and Employment

Women’s work around the world is more limiting and narrower than that of men.

Bank tellers and secretaries are most often women. Domestic workers in North America and in Central and South America are most often women. Around the world, jobs defined as women’s work too often carry low pay, low status, and little security.

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Two authors described many of these circumstances as “job ghettos”. In 1990 the only countries in the world that had maternity leave and guaranteed jobs on the basis of national law were Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Finland, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Egypt, Syria, Russia, Japan and Thailand. Among the major countries without these provisions were the United States, England, and France.

Women and Education

The countries with the fewest women being educated are in Africa, where in some areas women are receiving no education at all. Canada, the United States, and Russia have the highest percentage of educated women. In developing countries, 67 percent of the women and 50 percent of the men over the age of 25 have never been to school. In 1985, 80 million more boys than girls were in primary and secondary educational settings around the world.

Women and Psychological Issues

Women around the world, in every country, experience violence, often by someone close to them. In Canada 10 percent of the women report that they have been beaten in their homes by the man they live with, and in the United States almost

2 million women are beaten in their homes each year. In a recent survey, “The New Woman Ethics Report”, wife abuse was listed as number one among 15 of the most pressing concerns facing society today. Although most countries around the world now have battered women’s shelters, there are some countries where beating women continues to be accepted and expected.

In a recent investigation of depression in high-income countries, the women were twice as likely as the men to be diagnosed as being in depression. In the United States, from adolescence through adulthood, females are more likely to be depressed than males. There are many socio-cultural inequities and experiences that have contributed to the greater incidence of depression in females than males.

Answer the questions:

1.What place do women hold in politics? Are they satisfied with this position?

2.Jobs are commonly divided into men’s and women’s work. Can you give any reasons for this division?

3.Why are jobs defined as women’s work called “job ghettos”?

4.Do women need better education? Do you think we would live in a better world if women had better education?

5.Why is “wife abuse” a number one of the most pressing concerns facing society today?

SOCIAL INEQUALITY

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Ever since people began to speculate about the nature of human society, their attention has been drawn to the differences that can be easily observed between individuals and groups within any society. The term social inequality describes a condition in which members of a society have unequal amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. Wealth accounts for all of a person’s material assets, including land and other types of property. Prestige refers to the respect with which a person’s occupation is regarded by society. Power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others.

All cultures are characterized by some degree of social inequality. When a system is based on a hierarchy of groups having unequal economic rewards and power in a society, sociologists call it stratification.

Stratification is one of the most important and complex subjects of sociological investigation because of its great influence on human interactions and institutions. Of course, each of us wants “fair share” of society’s rewards, and we often come into conflict over how these rewards should be divided. Family members argue over who should be given money to buy new clothing or take a vacation; nations go to war over precious resources such as oil or minerals. As a result, sociologists have directed their attention to the implications of stratification in ranking members of a society and the ways in which social inequalities are passed on individuals, groups and generations.

Stratification is universal and social scientific research has revealed that inequality exists in all societies. Viewed from the sociological perspective stratification has several forms:

1. Stratification by social class, based on income differences and unequal sources of wealth.

American sociologists have worked out the class system of the United States using a five-class model. About 1 percent of Americans are categorized as upper-class, a group limited to the very wealthy. These people form intimate associations with one another in exclusive clubs and social circles. By contrast, the lower class, consisting of approximately 20 percent of Americans, is populated by many of the elderly, as well as single mothers with dependent children and people who cannot find regular work. This class lacks both wealth and income and is too weak politically to exercise significant power.

Between these two classes are the upper middle class (10%), the lower middle class (30%), and the working class (40%). The upper middle class is composed of professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and architects. They participate extensively in politics and exercise leadership roles in different associations. The lower middle class includes less wealthy professionals, such as teachers and nurses, owners of small business, clerical workers. The working class are people holding regular manual or blue-collar jobs (as contrasted to white-collar jobs, i.e. employees). Yet, certain

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members of this class, such as electricians, may have higher incomes than people in the lower middle class.

2. Stratification by race and ethnicity, based on minority groups division. When sociologists define a minority group, they are primarily concerned with the

economic and political power, or powerlessness of this group. Thus, a minority group is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than the members of a dominant or majority group have over theirs. However, in certain instances, a group which constitutes a numerical majority can still be a minority group in sociological terms (for example, women).

The term “racial group” is used to describe a minority (sometimes a rather dominant) group which is set apart from others by obvious physical differences. Whites, blacks, and Asian Americans are all considered racial groups within the United States.

Unlike racial groups, an ethnic group is set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns, for example, Jews.

In most societies, physical differences tend to be more visible than ethnic differences that is why stratification along racial lines is less subject to change than stratification along ethnic lines. But in a biological sense, there are no “pure races” and no “physical” traits that can be used to describe one group to the exclusion of all others.

3.Stratification by gender, based on sexism, i.e. the ideology that one sex is superior to the over.

Although numerically a majority, in many respects women fit the definition of a subordinate minority group within contemporary society. Sociological studies indicate that that is a men’s world and there are no societies in it in which women play the decisive role.

There are obvious biological differences between the sexes which contribute to the development of gender identity, i.e. the self-concept of a person as being male or female. But many societies have established social distinctions between the sexes which do not result from biological differences. The so called gender roles are defined as expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. The application of traditional gender roles leads to many forms of differentiation between men and women. Men have traditionally been viewed as the providers of the family, while women have been expected to assume almost total responsibility for child care and household duties. In addition, our culture views many forms of work as “women’s work” or “men’s work”. Both sexes are capable of learning to cook and to type, yet these tasks are usually performed by women. Both men and women are capable of learning to fly airplanes, but this function is generally assigned to males. When one looks at the political structure of contemporary

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countries, one has to look hard to find many women. However in modern industrial societies there has been an evident change in the application of traditional gender roles to sexes.

4. Stratification by age, based on age differentiation.

Some of this age differentiation seems inevitable; it would make little sense to send young children off to war or to expect most older citizens to handle physically demanding tasks such as loading goods at shipyards.

Age, like race and gender, is an ascribed status. “Being old” is a master status that sometimes overshadows all others. Moreover, this status is generally viewed in negative terms. Sociological studies report widespread perceptions of older citizens as stubborn, touchy, quarrelsome, bossy, and meddlesome. These studies also show that elderly person receive less respect as they get older. Abuse and neglect of elderly members within the family have received increasing public attention in recent years. The competition in the labor force is not in the elderly favor either; very often younger adults view older workers as “job stealers”. This belief does not only intensify age conflict but leads to age discrimination. And last but not least, the elderly are especially likely to be victims of age segregation. Many have to live in special nursing houses in which they are often at a disadvantage and feel lonely and unhappy.

Thus, the subordinate status of the elderly is quite evident in all societies and the elderly fit all the properties of a minority group with one crucial difference: all of us will eventually assume the ascribed status of being an older person and an increasing proportion of any population is composed of elderly citizens.

Answer the questions:

1.What is social inequality usually based on?

2.Why is stratification one of the most important and complex subjects of sociological investigation?

3.What forms of stratification exist in all societies?

4.What is stratification by social class?

5.What is the difference between a racial group and an ethnic group?

6.How can different social groups relate to one another in a society?

7.What is stratification by gender based on?

8.How can you prove that ours is a men’s world?

9.What shows that women gain some degree of power at present?

10.What is stratification by age?

11.How can you prove the subordinate status of the elderly in all societies? 12.Are there any problems in being young?

13.Do you feel any social inequality?

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VOCABULARY

A

accessible - доступный advantage – преимущество affection - привязанность amount – количество, итог anxiety – беспокойство approach - подход

appropriate (adj; n) – соответствующий; присваивать, предназначать as a whole – в целом

ascribed status – приписываемый статус assertion - утверждение

assess - оценивать assessment - оценка at once - сразу

attainment – достижение, приобретение attitude – отношение, позиция

attribute (n;v.) – признак, характерная черта; относить, приписывать autonomous - независимый

B

background - происхождение behavior - поведение

belong - принадлежать

benefit (n;v) – польза, преимущество; извлекать/приносить пользу be prone to – быть склонным к

boundary - граница

brain drain – утечка мозгов by mail – по почте

by means of – с помощью, посредством

C

carry out research – проводить исследование cause-and-effect – причина и следствие census - перепись

clarify – прояснить, внести ясность close-ended format – закрытый формат closely associated – тесно связанный

cohesive – способный к сцеплению, связанный

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cohesiveness – когезионная способность competition – соревнование, конкуренция

concern (n;v) – отношение, интерес; иметь отношение, заниматься conduct research – проводить исследование

confirm - подтверждать

conform – соответствовать, подчиняться consequently – следовательно, в результате considerable - значительный

consolation - утешение

constraint – принуждение, скованность correspondingly - соответственно

crucial – решающий, ключевой, критический current – текущий, современный

D

degree of intimacy – степень близости

demand (n;v) – требование, спрос; требовать, нуждаться dependent (adj;n) – зависимый, подчиненный; иждивенец descriptive research – описательное исследование develop a theory – развить/разработать теорию

diaspora - диаспора

differ from – отличаться от disadvantage - недостаток discipline – предмет (дисциплина) discourage - препятствовать

distinctive – отличительный, характерный draw conclusions – делать выводы

E

efficient – эффективный, действенный emerge – появляться, возникать

empirical evidence – эмпирическое доказательство employ – использовать, применять, нанимать encourage – способствовать, поддерживать established patterns – установленные модели evaluate – оценивать, определять

event – событие, случай

exert pressure – оказывать давление

experience (n;v) – опыт; испытывать, знать по опыту explanatory research – пояснительное исследование expose – раскрывать, показывать

extent - степень

F

familiar – знакомый, привычный find out – выяснить, обнаружить focus (n) – фокус, центр

focus on (v) – сосредоточить внимание на

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fundamental sciences – фундаментальные науки

G

gender – род, пол generation – поколение

genuine – подлинный, истинный

goal orientation – целевая ориентация guideline – принцип, установка

guiding principles – руководящие принципы

I

identify – устанавливать, отождествлять impersonal – безличный, беспристрастный incompatibility - несовместимость

increase (n;v) – рост, увеличение; увеличивать, повышать inevitable - неизбежный

infinite – бесконечный, безграничный influence (n;v) – влияние, воздействие; влиять interaction - взаимодействие

in terms of – с точки зрения investigation – исследование, изучение

involve – включать, вовлекать, затрагивать

issue (n;v) – проблема, вопрос; издавать, производить item – вопрос, пункт

L

level - уровень

limit (n;v) – предел, граница; ограничивать link (n;v) – звено, связь; соединять, связывать long-term – долгосрочный, длительный

M

major – основной, главный majority - большинство

make a favorable impression – произвести благоприятное впечатление make use of - использовать

managerial level – управленческий уровень measure (n;v) - мера, размер; измерять membership – членство, состав

minority - меньшинство

multiple roles – многочисленные роли mutual - взаимный

N

nationwide – общегосударственный, всенародный need – нужда, потребность

neglect - пренебрегать nurturant - заботливый

O

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obtain – получать, добиваться occur – происходить, случаться on the basis – на основе

open-ended format – открытый формат

P

paragraph - абзац

particular status – особый/определенный статус pattern – модель, образец

permanent - постоянный

personal orientation – личностная ориентация play a role – играть роль

point of view – точка зрения polled – опрашиваемый preliterate - необразованный

primarily – главным образом, в основном primary – первичный, основной

propose – предлагать, полагать

public opinion poll – опрос общественного мнения publish – издавать, публиковать

Q

quality - качество quantitative - количественный quantity - количество

questionnaire – анкета, опросный лист

R

rational – рациональный, рассудительный recall - вспомнить

refer to – обращаться к , ссылаться на refine – совершенствовать, улучшать reflect – отражать, размышлять reject – отвергать, отказывать(ся)

relational – реляционный, относительный, родственный relationship – связь, отношение

remain - оставаться resistance - сопротивление

respondent – респондент, ответчик response - ответ

role conflict – ролевой конфликт

role performance – ролевое представление role strain – ролевое напряжение round-the-clock - круглосуточный

S

script - сценарий

secondary – вторичный, второстепенный select properties – выбирать свойства

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self-administered survey – самостоятельное исследование/обследование self-assertive – напористый, самоуверенный

self-concept - самооценка self-conscious - застенчивый

sensitive – чувствительный, восприимчивый setting – окружение (среда)

shaping - формирование

shift (v.) – смещать, менять направление short-term – краткосрочный, кратковременный simultaneous – одновременный, синхронный simultaneously - одновременно

society - общество

specify – указывать, определять, устанавливать statement - утверждение

status set – статус-набор stratification - расслоение

subject (n;v) – тема, предмет, вопрос; подчинять, представлять subject matter - предмет

suggest - предлагать

suit (v.) – соответствовать, подходить

survey (n;v) – исследование, обзор; рассматривать, исследовать

T

technique – методика, способ, прием, техника temporary - временный

tension – напряжение, напряженность terminally - неизлечимо

through comparison – через/путем сравнения tools of research –исследовательские инструменты transitory – преходящий, мимолетный

U

unconventional - нетрадиционный

under supervision – под наблюдением/руководством unique – необыкновенный, уникальный

urge (n;v) – импульс, толчок; побуждать, настаивать на

V

variable - переменная

variety – разнообразие, множество vary - изменяться

verbally - устно

W

welfare – благополучие, достаток with confidence – с уверенностью

with regard to – в отнощении, что касается

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