Методичка для социологов

ending without particular significance. True, people may work in an office for decades with the same co-workers, but a more typical example of secondary relationships is students in a college course who never see one another after the semester ends. Since secondary groups are limited to a single specific activity or interest, their members have little chance to develop a deep concern for one another’s overall welfare. Secondary groups are less significant than primary groups for personal identity. Although people in a secondary group sometimes think of themselves in terms of ‘we’, the boundary that distinguishes members from nonmembers is usually far less clear than it is in primary groups.

Secondary groups are important mostly as a means of achieving certain specific ends. If relationships within primary groups have a personal orientation, those within secondary groups have a goal orientation. In short, while members of a primary group have personal importance on the basis of who they are, members of secondary groups have significance on the basis of what they can do for us.

Individuals in primary groups are likely to be sensitive to patterns of social exchange – how benefits received by one member compare to those received by another - although such considerations are not of crucial importance. Within secondary groups, however, exchange is very important. In business transactions, for example, the people involved are keenly aware of what they receive for what they offer. Likewise, the secondary relationships that often characterize neighbors are based on the expectation that any neighborly favor will be reciprocated in the future.

The goal orientation of secondary groups diverts the focus of social interaction from personal matters to mutually beneficial cooperation. With the wish to maximize these benefits, members of secondary groups are likely to craft their performances carefully, and usually expect others to do the same.

Task 1. Transcribe the following words and practice their pronunciation:

although, apply, characteristic, constitute, course, crucial, decade, emotional, intimate, major, situational, transaction, type, typically

Task 2. Answer the following questions:

1.What groups do sociologists distinguish?

2.Who was the first to speak on the importance of such distinction?

3.What group is called primary?

4.What is the most important primary group for a child?

5.How are secondary groups organized?

6.What group plays an important part in the formation of personality?

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Task 3. Contradict the following statements. Start your sentence with: “Quite on the contrary …”

1.Primary groups are organized according to special interests of one kind or another.

2.For a young child the school group constitutes the most important group.

3.Secondary groups depend on face to face association.

4.Secondary groups are more characterized with intimate co-operation than primary groups.

5.It is the secondary group that plays the main part in the early formation of personality.

6.Within the secondary group the child receives the direct training as a member of society.

Task 4. Find in the text the facts to prove that:

1.The family constitutes the most important primary group for a child.

2.Membership in a primary group is an important feature of a child’s life.

3.Membership in a secondary group is an important feature of an adult life.

Task 5. Divide the text into logical parts and give a heading to each part.

Task 6. Find the main idea of each paragraph of the text.

Task 7. Comment on the table:

Primary Groups and Secondary Groups

1.Primary groups.

2.Secondary groups.

Task 9. Read the text and translate it in writing:

Networks

The term social network designates social ties that link people without the intensity of social interaction and common identity of a social group. A social network resembles a social group in that it joins people in social relationships. It differs from a social group because it is not the basis for consistent social interaction and generates little sense of common identity or belonging. Social networks also have no clear boundaries, but expand outward from the individual like a vast web.

Social ties within some networks may be relatively primary, as among people who attend college together and have since maintained their friendships by mail and telephone. More commonly, network ties are extremely secondary relationships that involve little personal knowledge. A social network may also contain people we know of or who know of us – but with whom we interact infrequently, if at all. Even though social ties within networks may not be strong, these relationships represent a valuable source that can be used to personal advantage.

Task 10. Find in the text “Primary and Secondary Groups” English equivalents for:

личный интерес; прочные связи; благополучие; формирование установок; скорее чем; быть ограниченным; граница; достигнуть определенной цели; целевая ориентация: напротив; взаимовыгодное сотрудничество

Task 11. Give Russian equivalents for the following English words and wordcombinations:

to draw distinction; to designate; to display genuine concern; major importance; sense of comfort and security; personal benefits; mutual; transitory; duration; overall welfare; crucial importance; likewise; to reciprocate

Task 12. Make up word-combinations and translate them into Russian:

To display - genuine concern sympathy self-consciousness

Task 13. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1.Such considerations are not of crucial importance.

2.Personal concern in social interaction is of certain value in drawing a distinction between primary and secondary groups.

3.The family is of major significance in shaping personal attitudes and behavior.

4.The problem of interpersonal relationships is of great interest for the social thinkers.

5.Secondary relationships are of definite importance in the study of social groups of people.

6.Human activity in social community is of deep concern for the sociologists.

Task 14. Answer the following questions:

1.What is of great concern for the sociologists in the study of primary groups?

2.What is of chief significance for you in your subject of investigation?

3.What is of major interest for the sociologists dealing with the public opinion poll?

Task 15. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:

SUPPLEMENT

HOW TO FIND THE MAIN IDEA OF THE PARAGRAPH

(From: Canavan P.J., King M.L. Developing Reading Skills. Boston, 1968)

First, remember that in the majority of paragraphs the first sentence expresses the main idea.

Second, read the first sentence of the paragraph to understand it so that you’ll be able to relate it to everything else in the paragraph – or for that matter, in the entire selection.

Third, skip to the last two or three sentences in the paragraph.

Fourth, read these last sentences rapidly. If one says the same thing as the first sentence of the paragraph, you’ll know the first sentence contains the main idea. If one expresses a different idea, you’ll suspect that it and not the first sentence of the paragraph is the topic sentence. And if these last sentences are clearly supporting details for the idea in the first sentence, you’ll know that the first sentence of the paragraph is the key one.

When doubt remains, there is the fifth step. Since a paragraph is about something – follow the dominant noun from first to last. Pick it up at or near the beginning and see it through repetitions, as well as through its transformations into pronouns and synonyms. Doing this will lead you to the main idea, or convince you that the first sentence was, after all, the topic sentence.

In fact, we offer this procedure not so you will spend a lot of time locating the main idea, but so you can do it quickly. On any occasion, don’t use any more of the steps than necessary, often only the first two will be required. You are really aiming to see the structure or organization of the paragraph. A later aim will be comprehension of all the writer’s material in the paragraph. Then you’ll read more slowly, and more carefully.

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BRAIN DRAIN: A NATURAL PHENOMENON?

Nowadays we are hearing less and less about how detrimental brain drain is to Russia. Have we, like the rest of the world, begun to see it as something natural?

The consolation is that these days, leaving the country does not necessarily mean saying good-bye forever. Indeed, in recent years, for every scientist who emigrates for good, there are four who are working on a contract basis. Their lifestyle is like a watchman’s job – one shift returns, and another leaves. They usually receive temporary grants, and travel from country to country.

Often they simply go because they can’t continue their research at a contemporary level in Russia, due to the lack of equipment, reactants, or the fact that they just can’t get the information they need. In the meantime, the level of this “internal scientific emigration” is at least twice as high as its “external” counterpart.

According to the official emigration statistics, most of our émigré scientists and pedagogical workers ended up in Germany, although those who emigrate to Germany usually end up changing their professions. So, in fact, three quarters of the people who actively work in the field of fundamental sciences are currently employed in the

United States and Canada. Others go to Israel and Australia, while recently they’ve also started heading to Latin American countries like Panama, Columbia and Mexico. There are also more exotic destinations like Trinidad, Namibia and Jamaica. They comprise the Russian scientific diaspora.

The term diaspora, or “dispersal”, has historically been used to characterize people who are drawn to one another across a distance. The ethnic-Russian scientific diaspora, which is scattered throughout the entire world, was able to become “glued together” very quickly with the help of computer communication systems.

First the Russian scientists had mailing lists; now they also have Web sites. One of the most popular mailing list is the INFO-RUSS project, which links over 1,200 subscribers. This form of correspondence is open to everybody. According to recent calculations, approximately 14,000-18,000 scientists from Russia have been working abroad in the field of fundamental sciences.

Lately, the processes of intellectual migration have become more stable and have taken on more civilized forms. Today, the West is buying out Russian young Programmers. Fourth-year students studying at faculties of computational mathematics and cybernetics can now receive stipends from foreign organizations. There are representatives of firms recruiting students to work abroad standing by at the famous technical schools.

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A big-name professor may choose the specific universities he would like to work in, but his students are willing to take any job, even one that has nothing to do with major science. They are being hired to create virtual casinos, and to develop banking services and new telecommunication technologies.

But science schools can’t exist without students. And Russia needs to hang on for about another 10 years, until it gets some fresh blood. The only people to count on are the kids who are currently in third and fourth grades.

Answer the following questions:

1.What problem is the article devoted to?

2.Is brain drain a natural phenomenon? What do you think?

3.Why do Russian scientists leave their Motherland?

4.Do all of them leave forever?

5.What countries do they go to?

6.What does the term “diaspora” mean?

7.What specialists are of high demand abroad?

8.What expects Russia in future?

9.Express your personal opinion of brain drain problem. Is it as dismal as it seems to be?

FEMALE STATUS ATTAINMENT

When the Canadian sociologists analyzed their data on female status attainment, they also found some surprising results. First of all, native-born Canadian women with full-time jobs come from higher status family backgrounds than do their male counterparts. On the average, their fathers have nearly a year more education and hold higher-status occupations. Second, the average native-born Canadian working woman has a Higher-status occupation than do similar males.

Finally, the correlations between women’s occupational prestige and their fathers’ education and occupational prestige are much lower than for men. Moreover, these same findings have turned up in American studies; it has now become standard practice to include women in status attainment research. How can these patterns be explained?

First of all, women are less likely than men to hold full-time jobs and are especially unlikely to work the lower their work qualifications. For many married women, especially those with young children, low-paying jobs offer no real economic

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benefits; the costs of working (including childcare) are about equal to the wages paid. In consequence, low-paying, low-status jobs are disproportionally held by males. This fact accounts for women having jobs of higher average prestige. But women are also underrepresented in the highest-prestige jobs.

As a result their occupational prestige is limited to a narrow range than that of men, which reduces correlations with background variables. That the average working woman’s father of the average employed male can be understood in the same terms. More qualified women come from more privileged homes; the daughters of the least-educated and lowest-status fathers aren’t in full-time jobs.

In fact, the husbands of working women have occupations with higher than average prestige. This is because of a very high correspondence between the occupational prestige of husbands and wives when both are employed full-time. People who marry tend to share very similar levels of education and similar family backgrounds. Indeed, divorce and remarriage contribute to the similarity of husbands and wives in terms of occupational prestige.

These findings must not cause us to overlook the fact that women long were excluded from many occupations and are still underrepresented in elite managerial and professional careers. What they do show, however, is that within the special conditions outlined here, female status attainment does not differ much from that of men.

SAYING GOOD-BYE TO THIS WORLD

Hospice is not a common word for Russia. The modern hospice movement – the provision of homes for terminally ill patients where they spend their last days – was born in Britain. The first among them was an establishment founded in 1967 by Lady Cicely Saunders with her own money. She named it after St. Christopher. A few years ago, on the initiative of Victor Zorza, a British journalist, hospices began to appear in this country. Today there are 22; seven of them are in St. Petersburg and one in Moscow.

Whom does the hospice provide care to? Information comes in concerning prospective patients from area outpatient clinics, or from district oncologists or general practitioners. An application must be submitted with a case report and diagnosis. Some patients need palliative institutional treatment.

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Patients are only admitted here in the following cases. First, those who suffer from an intractable pain syndrome, when no home medication can help. In this event, they are placed under round-the-clock observation and an effective anesthetic plan is selected. Personnel here know that relatives of these patients need temporary relief. Second, special attention is given to lonely people and those who live in communal apartments. For the majority of them this cozy home with a quiet courtyard is a heavenly place, if it is appropriate to say so about a hospice. After spending a week or two here, many do not want to leave, regarding the discharge as an act of cruelty.

Although the furnishings and the equipment in this home for the terminally ill show that the Moscow authorities have invested considerable funds in this project, the city budget is still limited. Just like British hospices, Russian ones count on philanthropists. One firm provides writing paper; another provides flowers and someone to look after them; a fourth donated fixtures and fittings for the bathrooms.

Unlike its London counterpart, the Moscow hospice has a house call service. Doctors, nurses, a social worker, a lawyer, and a psychologist visit patients in their homes. They provide medical and social assistance, including patient care, apartment cleaning, meal preparation, buying food, assistance in executing legal documents, etc. There are a lot of things to do, and so the service tries to mobilize the patient’s relatives, neighbors, and colleagues.

Answer the questions:

1.Where was the modern hospice movement born?

2.When was the first hospice established?

3.How many hospices are there in the world today?

4.Whom does the hospice provide care to?

5.In what cases are the patients admitted to the hospice?

6.Do hospices exist on the philanthropic grounds?

7.What specialists take care of the terminally ill patients?

8.Find the information about hospices in your city.

EXPLORING THE MOTHER’S AND FATHER’S ROLES

What do you think of when you hear the word motherhood? If you are like most people, you associate motherhood with a number of positive images, such as warmth, selflessness, dutifulness and tolerance. And while most women expect that motherhood will be happy and fulfilling, the reality is that motherhood has been

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accorded relatively low prestige in our society. Mothers rarely receive the appreciation they warrant. When children don’t succeed or they develop problems, our society has had a tendency to attribute the lack of success or the development of problems to a single source – mothers.

The role of the mother brings with it benefits as well as limitations. Although motherhood is not enough to fill most women’s entire lives, for most mothers it is one of the most meaningful experiences in their lives.

The father’s role has undergone major changes. During the colonial period in

America, fathers were primarily responsible for moral teaching. Fathers provided guidance and values, especially through religion. With the Industrial Revolution, the father’s role changed; he gained the responsibility as the breadwinner. By the end of World War II, another role for fathers emerged, that of manhood model. Although being breadwinner and moral guardian continued to be important father roles, attention shifted to the father’s role as a male, especially for sons. The father now is being evaluated in terms of his active, nurturant involvement with his children.

Children’s social development can significantly benefit from interaction with a caring, accessible, and dependable father who fosters a sense of trust and confidence.

The father’s positive family involvement assumes special importance in developing children’s social competence, because he is often the only male the child encounters on a regular day-to-day basis.

Father-mother cooperation and mutual respect helps the child develop positive attitude toward both males and females. It is much easier for working parents to cope with changing family circumstances and day-care issues when the father and mother equitably share child-rearing responsibilities. Mothers feel less stress and have more positive attitudes toward their husbands when they are supportive partners.

In earlier times, women considered being a mother a full-time occupation. Currently, there is a tendency to have fewer children, and, as birth control has become common practice, many individuals choose when they will have children and how many children they will raise. The number of one-child families is increasing.

Three accompanying changes are that (1) as a result of the increase in working women, there is less maternal investment in the child’s development; (2) men are apt to invest a greater amount of time in fathering; and (3) parental care in the home is often supplemented by institutional care (day care, for example).

As more women show an increased interest in developing a career, they are not only marrying later, but also having children later. What are some of the advantages of having children early or late? Some of the advantages of having children early are these:

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