I.V. Arnold – 4 components which influence expressivity:

1. emotive – refers to the feelings and emotions of the speaker. It reveals the subjective attitude. Emotive component is found in interjections – words denoting emotions (Alas, hmm, I’m so glad!), oaths and swear words (Christ, bloody, damn, gosh), qualitative and intensifying adjectives (fabulous, horrid, spectacular, cute). Words with emotive connotations should not be confused with words describing or naming emotions and feelings (anger, fear), because emotions are their denotative meanings. (E.g. You should control your impatience – stylistically neutral. He is a BIG boy already (big – emotive connotation). Emotive component is based on denotative meaning, but very often forces it out (honey, duck – in address to people different denotative meanings, similar emotive component of tenderness);

2. evaluative – reflects positive or negative evaluation, approval or disapproval (time-tested/out-of-date method). May specify denotative meaning and is included into the dictionary entry (to sneak – to move silently and secretly usually for a bad person);

3. expressive – intensifies the meaning of a word with a help of imagery or some other means (Life was not merely to be slaved away (Lawrence) – based on metaphor; She was a sweet little thing – grammatical transposition). Always present in intensifying adverbs (awfully nice), in intensifiers (all, even, quite). Usually, intensifiers are markers of colloquial speech. So, we observe the stylistic component of connotation. Awfully nice, awfully beautiful, terribly sorry

4. stylistic – is revealed if a word belongs to a certain functional style or to a specific layer of vocabulary (Yonder, slumber, thence – poetic writing).

Stylistic component :

• Speech characterization

• Epoch characterization

• Renderin local color (foreign words)

Stylistic semasiology

• Shifts of meaning

• Stylistic effect of semantic changes

• Expressive means and stylistic devices

The 4 components may be all present at once or in different combinations.

Paradigmatic semasiology. Figures of replacement. Figures of quantity. Figures of quality.

Expressive means of a language – linguistic forms and properties which have the potential to make the utterance emphatic or expressive. They can be found on all levels (e.g. morphological – diminutive suffixes (piggy), on the syntactical – emphatic grammar constructions (That dog of yours!). Expressive means and stylistic devices (=figures of speech) are not completely synonymous. All stylistic devices belong to expressive means, but not all expressive means are stylistic devices.

A stylistic device is a literary model in which semantic and structural features are blended so that it represents a generalized pattern. Thus a language fact can be transformed into a stylistic device through frequent use. The majority of the terms of tropes and figures of speech can be traced back to classical rhetoric (Aristotle’s theory of style, Hellenistic Roman rhetoric system).

3 modern classifications of expressive means:

1. G. Leech – built on the principle of distinction between normal and deviant features in the language of literature. He distinguished paradigmatic and syntagmatic deviations from lexical and grammatical norms of language (farmyards away, a grief ago, all sun long – paradigmatic features; alliteration – syntagmatic stylistic device)to live in the lap of luxury;

2. Galperin – the classification is based on the level-oriented approach and consists of 3 groups: phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices, lexical, syntactical:

3. Skrebnev’s approach demonstrates a combination of Leech’s and Galperin’s classifications. Thus, we have paradigmatic and syntagmatic phonetics, morphology, semasiology, syntax.

Paradigmatic semasiology studies figures of replacement traditionally known as tropes which deal with renaming.

Syntagmatic semasiology studies figures of co-occurrence. It studies types of names used for linear arrangement of meanings and deals with semantic relationships expressed at the length of the whole text.

Epithet.

Epithet is one of the most ancient and the most widely-used stylistic devices. It is not included in Screbnev’s classification (“It is not a trop, it is partly semantic and partly syntactic”). Epithet implies foregrounding of the emotive meaning of the word to suppress its denotative meaning. It is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterize the object, to point out some of its features and to give an individual evaluation of its features and properties. (E.g. wild wind, glorious sight, angry sky). Epithets can be classified according to following principles:

1. word-epithet (simple epithet) – to hate violently; it is expressed by an attributive or an adverbial function of any notional part of speech;

2. compound epithet – is expressed by compound adjective (cash-hungry universities);

3. two-step epithet (adverd+adjective) – a marvelously radiant smile;

4. syntactical epithet – based on illogical syntactical relations. It is expressed by 2 nouns linked in an “of”-phrase. A jewel of a film,apearl of a citty, a palace of a bird cage, a devil of a job, the brute of a boy, the gient of a man, an angel of a girl, a kitten of a woman (kitten-like), but the kitten of the woman = the kitten belonging to a woman.

5. phrase-epithet – expressed by phrase syntactically transformed into 1 sentence component by means of hyphenation (of-so-good life, oh-so-comfortable car, a you-know-how-dirty-men-are look, the sineshine-in-the-breakfast-room smell, a movie-if-you-dare expression, to produce facts in a Would-you-believe-it kind of way).

6. sentence-epithet – one-member sentence in the function of emotive nomination (You, ostrich! Fool!)

Distributional approach:

1. single epithet (a dry look);

2. a pair of epithets (a tired old town, a wonderful and happy summer);

3. a chain/string of epithets (the wonderful, cruel, enchanting, fatal, great city (O’Henry about New York).

Semantic approach:

1. affective (=emotive proper) – gorgeous, magnificent;nasty

2. transferred (=figurative) – voiceless sands, merry hours, a ghost-like face, a tobacco-stained smile, restless and unwise dollars, a sleepless pillow, the frowning cloud.

Transferred epithets are based on similarity of characteristics of 2 objects. They transfer the quality of 1 object upon its nearest neighbor. Epithet should not mix up with logical attribute. Epithets – subjective, evaluative and do not point to inherent qualities of the object. Logical attributes are purely objective, non-evaluating and indicate to generally recognized qualities. (Green meadows, white snow, blue skies).

Lecture 5

There are 2 classes of figures of replacement: figures of quantity and figures of quality.

Figures of quantity demonstrate the most primitive type of remaining, which is based on the inexactitude of measurement, on the disproportion of the object and its verbal evaluation. It is either saying too much – overestimating the properties, or too little – underestimating. Accordingly, there are 2 figures:

1. hyperbole;

2. meiosis.

Hyperbole(Overstatement) – a deliberate exaggeration of a feature essential to the object. It is not meant to be taken literally, the speaker does not expect to be believed, he is merely adding emphasis to what he really means. E.g. I would cross the world to find you a pin. The applications of hyperbole are various:

• in colloquial speech – trite/hackneyed hyperbole is a natural outcome of uncontrolled emotions or out of habit. (a thousand pardons, in less than no time, immensely obliged, I’m starved!, he lives a stone’s throw from here, immensely obliged).

• in introductions to essays – there are 1000 reasons why research is needed on solar energy.

• to show comparison – This stuff is used motor oil compared to coffee you make, my love.

• for humoristic purposes – He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face (O’Henry). She was so skinny that she had to run in the shower to catch a drop of water.

Hyperbole can be subdivided into simple (expressed in 1 phrase or sentence) and developed (revealed in a larger context). Hyperbole can be expressed by:

• pleonastic structures (silly fools);

• combined with other stylistic devices (convergence) – There was a silence you could lean on.

Meiosis (understatement) – presents a logical and psychological opposite of hyperbole. It implies saying less than one means (expressing an idea in an excessively restrained language). In understatement the size, shape, dimensions, characteristic features are intentionally underestimated. Meiosis does not signify the actual state of affairs but presents it through the emotionally colored perception of the speaker. E.g. I overreacted (Kill Bill 2), He knows a thing or two (meaning the expert). It will cost you a pretty penny.

“Downtoners” – maybe, please, would you mind. They are meiotic devices which produce humorous effect when combined with rough, offensive words (Would you mind getting the hell out of my way?).

Meiosis vs hyperbole.

Meiosis is a kind of strengthening through apparent weakening. The speaker understates things which are normal or more than normal. E.g. What do you think of our little town? (about NY)

If smallness and insignificance is emphasized we deal with hyperbole. The object can be small, but we exaggerate its smallness (E.g. cat-size pony, a woman of pocket size).

Hyperbole and meiosis are not mutually exclusive. They often alternate in one context the same narrative.

(after a heavy rain)

-Got slightly wet, didn’t you?

-Wet? I’m drowned!

Understatement is typical of British manner of speech, hyperbole is the feature of American’s speech.

Litotes.

The specific structural type of meiosis is litotes. Here the understatement is achieved by substituting the affirmative with the negation of the contrary. It is a 2-component structure in which 2 negatives give a positive evaluation. E.g. She was not disappointed by the news (=She was thrilled). He is not half bad (=He is good).

2 structural types of litotes:

1. with 2 negative elements (no/not/less + negative affix): not hopeless, not unlikely, less unpopular, Her face was not unpretty, It’s not unusual, the thought did not displease me, She had an intuition that she could not mistrust .

no/not + preposition “without” – not without his help.

2. negation of the antonym of the idea to be expressed (not bad = good, not too awful, not a coward = brave, it was easy task(=difficult), this was no small issue(=huge), this is no minor matter(=serious), not too awful).

The function of litotes is to express the positive idea in a less categorical way.

Figures of quality.

1. 1.based on transfer by similarity;

2. based on transfer by contiguity;

3. based on transfer by contrast.

1. Metaphor – a stylistic device in which 2 different objects are simultaneously brought to mind as a result of transference of some quality of one object to another. It is based on the realization of 2 lexical meanings simultaneously. In metaphor transference of names is based upon analogy, upon visible similarity. Unlike simile, it is a hidden comparison. E.g. silver dust (stars), pancake (sun). They walked alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate. According to the degree of unexpectedness:

   • genuine (poetic/original/fresh/author’s) – reveals new, fresh, striking analogy between 2 objects;

   • trite (lexical/dead/hackneyed/stale) – commonly reproduced lexical unit, the function of which is that of intensifier. (E.g. time flies, a ray of hope, floods of tear, a storm of indignation)

   • zoonymic (zoomorphism) – the names of animals, birds are employed to refer to people (a busy bee = a hard-working person, a big fish = influential, a talk horse = boasts a lot хвастун).

Another classification is:

• simple – She is a flower. It is expressed by one word or word-group.

• sustained – a group of metaphors each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon to create an elaborated image. (E.g. And the perfect afternoon slowly ripened, slowly faded, slowly it petals closed (K. Manfield).

Cognitive approach to metaphor is widely used in research (some fragment of reality is represented as a metaphoric model consisting of frames and slots).

• military metaphoric model (A footballer shoots low from 25 yards);

• morbial metaphoric model – social problems are viewed as symptoms of some disease (The virus is spreading);

• theatrical metaphoric model (politicians as actors hamming up their parts).

Personification – a subtype of metaphor, which consists in attributing human qualities to inanimate objects or abstract ideas (The face of London; friendly house).

(Subtype of personification) Apostrophe/digressive address (риторическое обращение)– addressing someone absent or something non-human as if it were alive and present and could reply (Roll on, thou dark and deep blue Ocean – roll! (Byron).

The phenomenon opposite to personification is depersonification.

Allusion – a special variety of metaphor. It is a short informal reference to specific places, persons, literary characters, historical events known to the reader. Allusion helps to explain, clarify or enhance subject under discussion. The use of allusion is the realization of tendency towards economy of linguistic means, because allusion helps to express large amounts of information through only one or two words. It is regarded as a central element of intertextuality.

According to the source of allusion, they can be:

1. textual;

2. non-textual.

The most frequent sources for allusions are:

• the Bible (Queen of Sheba, King Solomon, She had sure cut off my locks. She was a Delilah (O’Henry);

• Greek mythology (See an Aphrodite in the mirror!);

• literary sources (Your Alice in Wonderland legs are all of a sudden so long they touch the feet of the person in front (Ch. Palahniuk); A new Cinderella is born (Midnight poison by Dior), Arouse the sleeping beauty of your hair (Herbal Essences), You’ll never put a better bit of butter in your knife (Country Life butter slogan).

• history, geography, general culture – non-textual allusions, presenting stereotypic images (The dollar is sinking like the Titanic; Armageddon for the Senate), (Chapter 27 – The Catcher in the Rye).

The functions of allusions:

• to convey local color;

• to create the historical background;

• to characterize a personage;

• to perform a symbolic function.

Antonomasia – closely connected to the allusion, it is a lexical stylistic device based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings.

2 basic types:

1. the use of a proper name in place of a common noun (Sheila – in Australian colloquial language is “a girl”). It has 2 subtypes:

   • metaprhoric antonomasia – implies the use of the name of a famous person recognized for some quality or characteristic feature as a substitude of this quality (-Is he smart? – Why, the man is an Einstein!; Quit being a Pollyanna!);

   • metonymic antonomasia – the name of a person stands for the thing he has created (He bought 5 Sezannes – paintings by Sezanne). It is observed in eponyms – names of people which stand for things, inventions or practices these people were associated with (a pullman – George Mortimer Pullman; Murphy’s Law (Ed Murphy) – constantly complained about technicians, made mistakes; teddy bear – Theodore Roosevelt); Nicotine (Jean Nicot).

2. the use of a common noun with the function of a proper name – speaking (token/tell-tale) name. It serves as an individualizing name. It is created mainly by nouns (Mr. Cellophane – Chicago musical); by adjectives (Looking for Mr.Right?), by attributive phrases and sentences (Sir Something Somebody, Dr. Fresh Air, Mister What’s-his-name).

Many speaking names are literary coinages. (Captain Tuffskin Hedzoff – W.M. Thackeray).

Allegory – expresses abstract ideas through concrete pictures. E.g. the scales of justice. All people are like Alice in Wonderland: while the door is closing, another door is opening (door = opportunity).

6 лекция