218

•Manganese dioxide deposits are common at Azokh 1 in agreement with a karstic damp environment. The presence of manganese deposition is related to envi-

ronmental condition characterized by high wet, mildly alkaline and oxidizing (López-González et al. 2006). Manganese dioxide is insoluble and tends to form crusts and coatings in caves (Karkanas et al. 2000).

Histology

We have followed sample preparation methods described by Fernández-Jalvo et al. (2010a) and criteria to identify microscopic focal destruction (MFD). The histological modification according to Hackett (1981) is divided into Wedl and Non-Wedl foci (i.e. Hackett’s “linear longitudinal, lamellate and budded foci”). Hacket’s non-Wedl MFD is associated with the activity of bacteria. Bacterial attack can be recognized in the BSE-SEM (backscattered electron mode SEM) as a brighter rim (i.e. more compact and dense bone mineral) that is reprecipitation of amorphous hydroxylapatite surrounding the MFD destructive foci (small pores and thin channels 0.1–2.0 microns in diameter). The Oxford Histological Index established by Hedges et al. (1995) from OHI 5 unmodified histology to OHI 0 with no original features identifiable, was used to characterize the general histological preservation of the bone. Tunnelling between 5 and 15 microns is usually assigned to fungal activity following Wedl (1864) and named “Wedl tunnelling” (see also Trueman and Martill 2002; Jans et al. 2002; Jans 2005).

Results

Skeletal Element Representation

Of the 1879 fossils examined from Azokh only 462 fossils (24.6%) could be taxonomically or anatomically identified due to the high frequency of breakage in the sample (Table 10.1).

With regard to family (Fig. 10.1) or order taxonomic identifications (Fig. 10.2), Unit I differs from the other units with a higher percentage of Bovidae. Unit I is associated with a fumier (manure hearth) from occupation of the cave by people who entered with livestock (Fernán- dez-Jalvo et al. 2010b). In contrast Units II to V are Pleistocene in age and have a predominance of cave bear in the mammalian fauna. Among these Pleistocene deposits, Units II and III are similar to each other and slightly

M.D. Marin-Monfort et al.

Fig. 10.1 Percentages of different families identified from each stratigraphic unit from Azokh 1 (obtained from the number of remains, NR)

Fig. 10.2 Percentage of macromammal orders (Carnivora, Perisodactyla and Artiodactyla) from Azokh 1 stratigraphic units (obtained from the number of remains, NR)

Table 10.2 Levels of identification. NR, number of remains; NISP, number of identified specimens; MNE, minimum number of elements; MNI, minimum number of individuals

different from Units Vu and Vm, which have higher abundances of taxa other than ursids. The classification by size of mammals in Azokh 1 gives percentages of 36.93% for the large sized animals, 25.55% for medium sized and 13.41% for small sized (24.11% could not be assigned to any of these size classes). The size classification by units shows a higher abundance of medium sized animals in Units I, Vu and Vm, while Units II and III have higher percentages of large sized mammals (cave bears).

The minimum number of identified elements (MNE) is lower than the number of fossils (NR) or the number of identified specimens (NISP) because of the high degree of breakage, which restricts their identification to skeletal element (Table 10.1). This table also includes indices comparing NISP/NR and MNE/NISP that, according to Lyman (1994), provide an indication of completeness. These indices are low showing the high breakage rates of these fossil assemblages. The minimum number of individuals is also given in Table 10.2, with carnivores and ungulates shown separately.

Skeletal elements that could be anatomically identified provide a total percentage in Azokh 1 of 7% for vertebrae, 6.6% for ribs, 6.8% for isolated teeth, 4.5% for phalanges 3.8% for metapodials with the rest of the skeleton elements below 2%. Hyoid bone and baculum, which are uncommon in fossil sites, have been recovered from Units II and III. Comparing skeletal abundances of anatomical elements per unit, most fossils could only be assigned to indeterminate long bones (non-assigned to fore or hind limbs). This is

common to all units, and next most abundant in all units are axial elements, particularly of juvenile individuals. Units Vu and Vm have greater numbers of cranial elements compared with other units. Main anatomical skeletal elements of bears and large, medium and small sized animals have been compared per stratigraphic unit (Fig. 10.3) showing an uncommon pattern of human occupation. Small sized animals may be transported complete, but in general the proportion of these animals in most units is low. Similarly, medium and large sized animals are less abundant and less well represented when compared to bears at this part of the cave.

Ages of individuals could be identified in many cases, and there is a high predominance of adults in all units of Azokh 1. Based on dental elements, Ursus spelaeus is the only taxon that has a range of ages, with adults, juveniles and old individuals in Units II and Vm. This could suggest that in these two levels the cave was occupied by female bears with their young (Kurten 1958; Andrews and Turner 1992), while at other levels, where only adult specimens have been found, the evidence may suggest that males only were living in the cave, but the interpretation is complicated both by the low numbers of individuals in all units (Table 10.2), and by the fact that cut marks are present on