Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University

Ganna Kovalenko

LEXICOLOGY

of the

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Kyiv – 2011

Рецензенти:

Ільченко О.М., доктор філологічних наук, професор, завідувач кафедри іноземних мов Центру наукових досліджень та викладання іноземних мов НАН України

Самохіна В.А., кандидат філологічних наук, доцент, завідувач кафедри англійської філології факультету іноземних мов Харківського національного університету імені В.Н. Каразіна

Рекомендовано Вченою радою Інституту філології Київського національного університету імені Тараса Шевченка

(протокол №10 від 25 травня 2010 року)

Коваленко Г.М. Lexicology of the English Language / Ганна Миколаївна Коваленко. – Київ, 2011.

Написаний англійською мовою навчальний посібник “Lexicology of the English Language” – це сучасна праця з англійської лексикології, яка поєднує в собі фундаментальну теоретичу основу з останніми дослідженнями в цій галузі.

Посібник охоплює всі розділи навчальної програми з лексикології для студентів-англістів факультетів іноземних мов, а також містить вправи для практичного закріплення теоретичного матеріалу.

Призначений для студентів вищих навчальних закладів зі спеціальністю «іноземна філологія», аспірантів, викладачів, й усіх, хто цікавиться питаннями сучасної англійської лексикології.

© Г.М. Коваленко, 2011

CONTENTS:

	ПЕРЕДМОВА…………………………………………………	7
	INTRODUCTION………………………................................. Lexicology as a linguistic discipline / The subject matter of Lexicology / Vocabulary as a System of Subsystems / Vocabulary Functions / Cognitive Nominative Mechanisms / Ways of Vocabulary Enrichment / Lexicology and Language Pictures of the World / Branches of Lexicology	9
	THE WORD AS A UNIT OF LANGUAGE.....………………. Definition of the word / Word boundaries / The word from the point of view of different language subsystems / Criteria of word classification / The problem of word-forms	20
	SEMASIOLOGY……………………………….……............... Word as a sign. The structure of meaning………………. Signification and meaning in Ancient and Medieval philosophy / Word as a sign / Sign structure (the signifier, the signified and the interpretant) / Lexical vs Grammatical meaning / Denotation / Signification / Connotation /Loaded words / Semantic change................................................................ Definition of semantic change / Extension (Generalization) / Narrowing (Specializaation) /Amelioration / Pejoration / Further kinds of semantic change / Folk etymology Polysemy........................................................................... Stages of semantic change /Definition of polysemy and polysemes / Polysemy vs Homonymy / Examples of polysemes / Polysemy vs Indeterminacy / Linguistic processes governing polysemy Homonymy and paronymy………………………............ Definition of Homonyms / Origins of Homonyms / Partial Homonyms / Homographs / Homophones / Capitonyms / Heterologues / Stylistic use of Homonyms / Paronyms Antonymy……………………………………….............. Definition of Antonyms / Derivation of Antonyms /Gradable Antonyms / Complementary Antonyms / Other types of Antonyms /Auto-Antonyms Synonymy……………………………………………….. Definition of Synonymy and Synonyms / Types of Synonyms / The Basic Semantic Functions of Synonyms / Synonym Paradigms / Non-Lexical Synonymy / Other semantic relations between words………………... Hyponyms and Hypernyms / Incompatibility / Holonymy and Meronymy / Series / Hierarchies	29 29 39 49 56 62 72 79
	WORD-FORMATION………………………………………… Word-Formation in the Nomination System of the English Language.................................................................... Nomination /Simple Nomination vs Nomination of the Second Order / Primary vs Secondary Nomination / Classifications of Word-Formation Types / Linear and Non-Linear Derivation / Word-Combinations and Phraseologisms / Borrowing Affixation…..............…………………….…..………….. Definition and affix types / Suffixation / Semi-suffixes / Prefixation / Semi-prefixes Compounding..........……………………………………... Definition of compounds / Endocentric vs exocentric compounds / Bahuvrihe /Compounds spelling / Stress patterns /Chief grammatical relations between compound components / Compound nouns / Compound nouns of verbal origin / Compound adjectives / Compound verbs / Compound prepositions / Multicomponent compounds / Minor linear derivation types.....………………………… Back-formation / Clipping / Blending / Reduplication / Abbreviation and Acronyms / Iconic derivation Non-linear derivation……………………………………. Definition of non-linear derivation /Definition of conversion / Types of word-class conversion / Conversion between language levels / Conversion within one word-class / Compression /Partial substantivation / Noun adjunct /Metaphoric nomination / Connotation shift	86 86 100 120 130 141
	WORD-COMBINATION………………………………........... Free combination / Collocation / Collocational restriction / Lexical phrases / Catch phrases / Quotations	152
	PHRASEOLOGY…………….……………………………....... Phraseology and phraseologisms – definition / Phraseological unit vs word / Phraseological unit vs word combination / The degree of semantic isolation / Classifications of phraseologisms / Stability of phraseological units / Phraseological variants / Structural synonymy / Proverbs	158
	VOCABULARY STRATIFICATION………………………… Native vocabulary / Criteria of vocabulary classification / Semantic fields / Nonce words and neologisms / Archaisms /Loaded lexicon / Regional dialects / World Englishes /Social stratification of vocabulary / Political correctness and gender issues	169
	LEXICOGRAPHY...................................................................... Subject matter of lexicography / The history of English dictionary-making / The criteria of word description in linguistic dictionaries / Classification of dictionaries / Electronic and online icitonaries	186
	EXERCISES................................................................................	194
	SUBJECT INDEX…...........………………………………........	248
	NAME INDEX…...……………………………………….........	254

Передмова

Посібник «Lexicology of the English Language» призначено для студентів 3 курсу спеціальності «Англійська філологія» в межах курсу лексикології, студентів 5 курсу спеціальності «Іноземна філологія» в межах загальнотеоретичного курсу, а також студентів інших філологічних спеціальностей в межах загальнотеоретичного курсу з англійської мови.

Зміст посібника відповідає програмі Міністерства освіти і науки України з лексикології англійської мови для спеціалізованих вузів.

Теоретичну частину посібника побудовано з урахуванням новітніх вітчизняних і зарубіжних лінгвістичних досліджень. Приклади та ілюстрації, наведені в посібнику, являють собою сучасний лексичний матеріал, представлений в останніх редакціях словників англійської мови, а також в Оксфордському, Британському національному й Американському корпусах англійської мови. Кожен розділ посібника супроводжується списком питань для перевірки засвоєння матеріалу, а також переліком навчальної та наукової літератури для самостійного читання з вивченої теми.

Посібник складається зі Вступу, в якому подано загальний огляд курсу, семи теоретичних розділів і розділу «Вправи», а також тематичного й іменного покажчиків.

Перший розділ «The Word as a Unit of Language» розглядає проблему визначення слова, межі слова в англійській мові, місце слова серед інших одиниць мови, критерії класифікації слів, а також проблему визначення таких понять, як лексема, слово, словоформа.

У другому розділі «Semasiology» пропонується до вивчення слово як знак, структура значення слова, особливості семантичної транспозиції в англійській мові, проблеми полісемії, омонімії та паронімії, а також семантичні відношення між словами (синонімія, антонімія, гіпонімо-гіперонімічні відношення, тощо).

Третій розділ «Word-Formation» присвячено розгляду засобів словотворення в сучасній англійській мові, таких як афіксація, словоскладання, конверсія, а також другорядних типів словотвору.

В четвертому розділі «Word-combination» розглядаються особливості сполучуваності англійських слів у вільних та усталених сполуках, вивчається питання обмеженої сполучуваності.

П'ятий розділ «Phraseology» присвячено визначенню фразеологізму як одиниці мовної системи, його відмінності від слова й словосполучення, класифікації фразеологізмів, а також питанням стабільності фразеологічних одиниць, фразеологічній варіативності та структурній синонімії.

В шостому розділі «Vocabulary Stratification» представлено огляд різноманітних критеріїв стратифікації лексики англійської мови, визначення таких понять як «питома лексика», «семантичне поле», а також розглядаються такі групи слів, як оказіоналізми й неологізми, архаїзми, конотативно навантажені слова, в оглядовій формі описуються регіональні діалекти й міжнародні варіанти англійської мови. Робиться загальний огляд питання політичної коректності й гендерних проблем |у сучасній англійській мові.

Восьмий розділ «Lexicography» присвячено предмету й завданням сучасної лексикографії, класифікації словників, розглядаються класичні й сучасні типи словників, електронні лексикографічні ресурси.

В розділі «Exercises» студентам і викладачам пропонуються практичні завдання для засвоєння теоретичного матеріалу. Матеріалом для вправ послужили класичні й сучасні художні тексти англомовних авторів, а також Оксфордський, Британський національний і Американський корпуси англійської мови. Практична частина посібника охоплює такі підрозділи лексикології, як семасіологія і словотвір.

INTRODUCTION

Lexicology as a linguistic discipline / The subject matter of Lexicology / Vocabulary as a System of Subsystems / Vocabulary Functions / Cognitive Nominative Mechanisms / Ways of Vocabulary Enrichment / Lexicology and Language Pictures of the World / Branches of Lexicology

Lexicology (from Greek lexicós – ‘related to word’ and logos – ‘discipline’) is a linguistic discipline that studies language vocabulary.

The main subjects of study in Lexicology are:

• The problem of the word as the main unit of language, the types of lexical units;

• Vocabulary structure;

• Functioning of lexical units;

• The sources of vocabulary enrichment and the ways of its development;

• Vocabulary and extralinguistic reality.

1. The word as a unit of language is studied by the general word theory. The category of lexical unit includes not only separate words, but also set word combinations (analytical or compound units), but the word is still considered to be the basic lexical unit. As long as the word is characterized by the correlation between form and meaning, it is studied in three aspects:

• structural (word boundaries and word structure);

• semantic (lexical meaning of the word);

• functional (the role of the word in the structure of language and speech).

In the structural aspect, lexicology deals with the word boundaries and word identity. Speaking about the word boundaries, the word is contrasted to the word combination (help, great, little vs a great help, of little help), the problem of analytical words is studied (will have been helping, South Africa). Studying the word identity, the category of word form is defined (has helped, is helping) and contrasted to the word invariant (to help), along with studying the word variants (phonetic, morphological and semantic).

Semantic analysis of the word suggests the research of the way the word correlates with the notion it indicates (signification) and the object it denotes (denotation). Lexicology also studies semantic types of words, such semantic features of lexical units as monosemy (possessing only one meaning) and polysemy (possessing several meanings), as well as semantic relations between words: antonymy (health – illness, virtue - sin), synonymy (strange, odd, peculiar, eccentric, weird, bizarre, queer), hyponymy (dog – German Shepherd, Daxon; furniture – table, wardrobe, etc.), and the like. Special attention is paid to the semantic structure of polysemantic words. The types of meaning are studied along with peculiarities of meaning changes and development.

The functional aspect of lexicological study suggests looking at the word as belonging to the language system and regarding it in correlation with the units of the other levels of this system. Particular attention is paid to the correlation of the lexical level of language and grammar.

2. The vocabulary is studied in two aspects:

• System relations between lexical units;

• Vocabulary stratification.

Lexicology studies vocabulary as a system of subsystems. Minimal word groups, based upon the sameness or similarity of words are homonyms (to skip = to jump, and to skip = to miss out) and paronyms (affect / effect, feminine / feminist). Groups of synonyms evolve basing upon the similarity of semantic structures (beautiful / pretty / good-looking), while pairs of antonyms are based upon semantic opposition (generous – greedy). Lexicology also studies bigger groups of words – fields – based upon either paradigmatic or syntagmatic relations between words. A sum of paradigmatic and syntagmatic fields makes up a thematic field, which reflects a certain sphere of extralinguistic activity. No sector of vocabulary is isolated, certain types of relations exist between all lexical units in language.

Vocabulary of any language is not uniform. Word groups form vocabulary strata. Vocabulary stratification occurs according to the following criteria:

• According to the sphere of use, vocabulary can be classified into:

• neutral: mother, dinner, book, lamp, watch, smile, red, young, etc.

• stylistically marked, used in particular conditions and spheres, for example:

• poetic vocabulary: rosy-fingered (dawn), slumber (of death), amorous (causes), brethren, (noble) steed, sublime, behold, enchanted, the 2^nd person singular pronoun thou (thy, thine);

• professional vocabulary: stocks, to lease, loan, interest rate, asset purchases, bridge bank, net income (banking); depression, Oedipus complex, unconscious drive, extravert, archetype, countertransference, narcissism (psychoanalysis);

• dialects and regional variations of language: can (Am) – tin (Br), eraser (Am) – rubber (Br), highway (Am) – motorway (Br), cookie (Am) – biscuit (Br), diaper (Am) – nappy (Br), fries (Am) – chips (Br), license plate (Am) – number plate (Br), line (Am) – queue (Br), motor home (Am) – caravan (Br), period (Am) – full stop (Br), sidewalk (Am) – pavement (Br), etc.;

• sociolects: vocabulary used by different social classes, for example dig (to understand/appreciate), tote, bad-mouth, gray dude (‘white man’), Ofay (pejorative for white people), kitchen (referring to the particularly curly or kinky hair at the nape of the neck), siditty or seddity (‘snobbish, bourgeois’) are from African American Vernacular English. This sociolect has contributed various words and phrases to other varieties of English, including jazz, chill out, main squeeze, soul, funky, and threads;

• ageisms, for example youth slang: hammered, wreckaged, battered, swilled, sloshed, wizzed, widdled, hamstered, hoovered, on the heavy-bevvy, newkied, racked, hootered, faced, polluted (‘intoxicated by drink or drugs’); bollers, wonga, luka, bokoo (=much) duckets, billies, fundage, rocks (‘money’); brutal, nang, safe, buff, rated, bangin’, kickin’ (‘excellent, exciting’);

• idiolects: the vocabulary specific of a certain person; some famous people’s vocabularies (Raeganisms, Bushisms) have been of particular interest to the linguists.

• Considering emotional colouring, words can be classified into neutral and emotionally coloured (or loaded) vocabulary: bureaucrat vs public servant, anti-life / pro-abortion vs pro-choice, regime vs government, slowpoked vs leisurely, to go back on one’s word vs to reconsider, to be indignant vs to make fuss, do-gooder vs idealist.

• With chronological prospective, one can allocate:

• neologisms: blog, punked, adultolescence, to unfriend, to google, prequel, plus-size, consumerization, band-aid, advertorial, awesome-itude, bacheloric, bizarred, e-linquent, edress, to egosurf, halfie, etc.

• archaic words: thee, steed, hereunto, thereof, alack, anon, beseech, ere, gaoler, morrow, verily, wherefore.

• By origin words can be classified into:

• native: father, stone, swear, work, sit, two, above, life, baby, back, believe, blow, break, cat, child, clever, cut, dark, depth, fall, food, foot, give, glass, good, half, job, jump, etc.;

• borrowed: machine, datum, alumnus, bourgeois, rendezvous, babushka, abolish, acquisitive, admire, adolescence, quotidian, raison d'être, recollection, strudel, lager, leitmotif, balustrade, bronze, replica, terra-cotta, sepia, studio, villa and

• international: telephone, president, organization, algebra, automobile, biology, chemistry, dynamite, encyclopedia, hysteria, museum, prince, university, violin, vitamin, etc..

Lexical system of language is the least rigid among all language subsystems. The boundaries between word groups are quite flexible. One and the same word can (with different meanings and uses) belong to different word strata.

3. When vocabulary functions are researched, the following issues are discussed:

• word usage frequency: frequently used words are distinguished from rare words, frequently used words lists are made (among the most frequently used English words, except pronouns and grammatical words, hot, word, time, say, write, like, long, make, thing, see are mentioned); active vocabulary (the word stock recognized and used by a particular person or a group of people) and passive vocabulary (the word stock recognized by a particular person, but not actively used) are described;

• words in oral speech and in writing: the differences between spoken and written language are studied, as well as the peculiarities of word choice in written and spoken texts (for example, tautology in spontaneous speech), the choice of register (standard English, vernacular, jargon) in oral and written communication is researched, the influence of speech on the language-as-a-system (neologisms, nonce-words, coinages and their assimilation by the system of language) is of particular academic interest;

• nominative function of words:

• the correlation between words and aspects of extralinguistic reality is researched;

• cognitive nominative mechanisms are defined:

• analogy: coining new words by means of existing affixes, the cases of folk etymology, when parts of stems are interpreted as affixes by analogy to the existing word-formation model (hamburger – cheeseburger - vegeburger), the cases of lexicalization of affixes or syntactic units (a mini, do-it-yourself), the cases of metaphoric nomination (based on a certatin similarity: pencil skirt);

• opposition: creating antonyms to the already existing lexemes by means of affixes with negative semantics: anti- (fashion – antifashion, aesthetics - antiaesthetics), non- (colour – non-colour), un- (fashionable – unfashionable, cool – uncool, comfortable – uncomfortable); the use of suffixes with opposite meanings (mini-skirt – maxi-skirt; sleaved - sleaveless); the use of lexical antonyms (readymade – handmade);

• axiological shifts: amelioration and pejoration: elevation and lowering of meaning (queen from Indoeuropean gwene (woman, wife); knave (a cheat) – from Old English cnafa (boy));

• compression (a push-up from a push-up bra) and detalization of meaning (creating multicomponent word-combinations);

• assimilation mechanisms that help use borrowed words and nonce-words according to the rules of the English language (sari – saris; a wannabee – wannabees);

• context shifts of meaning and word usage are studied, the context-dependent aspects of connotation and polysemy; the application spheres of different vocabulary registers; pragmatic aspects of word usage;

• word combinability is studied together with the rules of building word-combinations.

4. Four ways of vocabulary enrichment can be distinguished:

• Word-formation: affixation, compounding, conversion, etc.;

• Development of new meanings: polysemy, semantic change;

• Creating word-combinations;

• Borrowings.

5. Vocabulary and culture is a separate area of discussion. Here language pictures of the world are studied, the ways in which reality is divided into sectors and described by words. Such processes as categorization and conceptualization of extralinguistic phenomena are discussed, the ways in which the continuum of extralinguistic reality is reflected in the people’s minds by means of language. The notion of concept is central to the cognitive linguistic research. The difference is made between language pictures of the world and conceptual pictures of the world. While the conceptual picture of the world is the whole set of ideas, concepts and knowledge about the world, and is connected with the abstract cognitive sphere, the language picture of the world is the result of verbalisation of cognitive concepts. While the first one is universal, the latter depends to a great extent on the ethnic mentality of the language speakers. Verbalized concepts are an integral part of language pictures of the world: they are the result of the world categorization encoded in speech. Such concepts as LOVE, FEMININITY, BALANCE, HARMONY, FEAR, FREEDOM, LIBERTY, DEMOCRACY, LANDSCAPE, POWER, SPACE, GOD have been researched on the material of the English language.

Lexicological discipline is divided into the following branches:

• General lexicology, which studies general laws of lexical system and language vocabulary.

• Special lexicology, which is occupied with the lexical system of a given language.

• Historical lexicology and etymology, which study lexical system in diachrony, discussing the evolution of vocabulary and the origins of words, and investigating the linguistic and extralinguistic forces that influence the changes in the vocabulary of a given language.

• Descriptive lexicology, which deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. It studies the functions of words and their specific structure.

• Comparative lexicology, which deals with lexical systems of different languages in comparison.

• Semasiology is the area of lexicology which discusses the word meaning, its structure and the classification of changes in the meanings of words.

• Word-formation is the area of lexicology which deals with derivation patterns in a particular language, categories and types of word-formation devices and the lexical units built with the help of these devices.

• Phraseology is the area of lexicology which studies the word-groups viewed as functionally and semantically inseparable units (phraseologisms or idioms) with a fully or partially transferred meaning.

• Applied lexicology coincides with certain branches of lexicography (compiling dictionaries), is used by some branches of translation theory, and deals with some aspects of rhetoric.

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