6. Translate into Ukrainian at sight, pay attention to the abbreviations used and give their Ukrainian equivalents.

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Technological development has been exponential in recent years. Ground control radar, the laser, electro-optical and infrared (IR) seekers on precision guided munitions, night-vision goggles, and terrain-following radar (TFR) are all technological steps upon which US night air combat capability depends.

Radar advances have been impressive. The arrival of airborne early warning (AEW) long-range air search radars was the main improvement to the air combat tool box. The US Navy and Air Force efforts started to pay off in the Vietnam War and lead to the E-3 Sentry (AWACS).

The APY-1 'flying saucer' radar was fitted to the back of a Boeing 707. It was no longer an airborne radar; it was a battle management command and control post in its own right. AWACS can control entire missions by vectoring aircraft to air-to-air tankers, providing warning of enemy aircraft and coordinate SAR.

"Combat aircraft are now more agile, presenting a more difficult target in a 'dog fight', and shaking off attackers."

Users include the USAF (33 E-3A/B/C), RAF (seven E-3D), France (four E-3F), NATO (18 E-3A) and Saudi Arabia (four E-3A). Patrol height is 30,000ft (9,144m). This is the type of capability used by the Israelis for their attack.

In contrast, the Swedish $50m S100B Argus is also in use. Turkey also has its own AWACS aircraft to support its air strikes. It has four Boeing 737 AEW&C aircraft undergoing system tests. This is an iteration of the Russian A-50 Mainstay AWACS aircraft without the technology.

India also has such a capability, with the recent delivery of three Beriev A-50El aircraft; these are based on the Ilyushin Il-76 airframe and integration is being undertaken by Israeli Aircraft Industries Elta division. Ground-based radar now has a range against a low-level aircraft of 60km-90km.

7. Translate into Ukrainian in writing, pay attention to the abbreviations.

COMMUNICATIONS IMPROVEMENTS

Communications have now been significantly upgraded. The problem is all about getting information to the pilot. Voice radio can be jammed easier than datalink. Datalinks only require short durations to transmit information.

Russian MiG-25 and US F-106 were fitted with datalinks and literally controlled from ground as far back as the 1960s. Little information was available to the pilot, but the ground controllers had the full picture. Soviet fighters were actually fitted with datalinks on a more widespread basis than NATO. They, in most cases, lacked the training and user friendly technology to take advantage of the increased SA.

NATO thought Warsaw Pact depended too much on GCI; the Warsaw Pact thought NATO depended too much on AWACS. Both were right, fighter pilots require some form of outside guidance.

Most fighter aircraft are fitted with two voice radios. One is set to GCI / AEW frequency, the other to the fighter flight frequency. This is subject to 'own flight jamming' as up to 40 aircraft try and talk to an AEW aircraft at the same time.

"Stealth and counter-stealth is important, as this directly deprives SA to the enemy."

During the early days of 1991 Gulf War, AWACS was overwhelmed and requests for target vectors went unanswered. The one US air-to-air loss of the war was a direct result of poor SA, as an Iraq MiG-25P used its superior speed to get in behind an USN F-18 and shoot it down. A similar situation occurred during the 1999 Allied Force action over Kosovo. During an AWACS changeover, USAF

F-15 radio calls went unanswered.

However, there are always limitations. The USN F-14 Tomcat could track 24 targets, but the TID (tactical information display), with a maximum range of 740km only allows six targets to remain readable. Other F-14, E-2 Hawkeye AEW or aircraft carriers could datalink other targets.

In 1987 the Swedish Air Force added a datalink from GCI to its JA 37 Jaktviggen. With this the ground-based air-defence system is able to provide target detection. The JA 37 can share information with other JA 37 such as which target each aircraft is attacking, fuel and weapons state and so on. In 1995 the ability to transmit simple text messages was added.

The JAS 39 Gripen has increased capability with information shared between fighters, S100B Argus AEW, GCI radars, naval warships and SAM positions. Four to six fighters would be spread over a distance of 120km-150km and share the same view. Soviet fighters such as the MiG-29 Fulcrum and Su-27 Flanker require datalinks as they lack advanced radar features.

The US / NATO now has the JTIDS (joint tactical information display system) datalink and fighter displays. This is fitted to AWACS, some USAF F-15C, USN F-14D and RAF Tornado F3 AWACS use their radar and ESM to detect targets, pass the information over JTIDS. The Tornado F3 stays passive (radars off) and gets into AMRAAM launch parameters without activating radars. This then leaves certain enemy aircraft with little warning of the situation, i.e. a loss of situational awareness.

USAF and NATO F-16s are fitted with IDM (improved data modem) to share information between four aircraft. MIDS (multiple information distribution system) now allows eight aircraft to share information. A typical MIDS installation will be eight French Mirage 2000-5F linked to an E-3F AWACS.

"A typical MIDS installation will be eight French Mirage 2000-5F linked to an E-3F AWACS."