38. Subjunctive I & the suppositional mood

These two moods will be treated together because they have the same meaning and are practically interchangeable in use. They differ in form as well as stylistically.

Forms: Subjunctive I is homonymous with the plain verb stem: be, do, have, go, write, etc. The negative form of Subjunctive I is not be, not do, not have. The Suppositional Mood is an analytical form built up with the help of the auxiliary verb should for all persons plus the infinitive. The non-perfect Suppositional Mood: should be, should do, should write. The perfect Suppositional Mood: should have been, should have done, should have written. Meaning: Both Subjunctive I and the Suppositional Mood express problematic actions, not necessarily contradicting reality. These actions are presented as necessity, order, suggestion, supposition, desire, request, etc.

COMPLEX SENTENCE Subjunctive I and the Suppositional Mood are used in nominal (subject, object, predicative), attributive appositive and some adverbial subordinate clauses.

NOMINAL AND ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSES 1. Both Subjunctive I and the Suppositional Mood (non-perfect) can be used in subject, object, predicative and attributive appositive clauses if in the principal clause a modal meaning is expressed. 2. Only the Suppositional Mood (both non-perfect and perfect) is used in nominal and attributive appositive clauses if in the principal clause a personal reaction to events is expressed (for instance, with words like amazing, interesting, shocked, sorry, normal, natural, it's a shame, etc.)

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 1. In adverbial clauses of purpose introduced by the conjunctions so that the non-perfect Suppositional Mood is used or, rarely, Subjunctive I: Mary lowered her eyes so that he should not see the faint dream of amusement in them. 2. In adverbial clauses of concession introduced by though, although, whatever, whoever, whenever, wherever, etc., the non-perfect Suppositional Mood or Subjunctive I may be used with reference to the present or future: Though he should make every effort he cannot succeed.

39. Word order. Invertion. Emphasis.

The words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order which is fixed for every type of sentence and is, therefore, meaningful. There exist two ways of arranging words - direct order and inverted order.

DIRECT WORD ORDER The most common pattern for the arrangement of the main parts in a declarative sentence is Subject-Predicate-(Object), promise to respect your wishes. Direct word order is also employed in pronominal questions to the subject or its attribute. Who told you where I was?

END-FOCUS AND END-WEIGHT there are two useful guiding principles to remember:

(a) End-focus: the new or most important idea in a piece of information should be placed towards the end, where in speech nuclear stress normally falls. A sentence is generally more effective (especially in writing) if the main point is saved up to the end. Babies prefer sleeping on their back.

(b) End-weight: the more 'weighty' part(s) of a sentence should be placed towards the end. Otherwise the sentence may sound awkward and unbalanced. The 'weight' of an element can be defined in terms of length (e.g. number of syllables) or in terms of grammatical complexity (number of modifiers). Structures with introductory it and there, for instance, allow to avoid having a long subject, and to put what you are talking about in a more prominent position at the end of the sentence. (It becomes hard for a child to develop a sense of identity.)

ORDER AND EMPHASIS English grammar has quite a number of sentence processes which help to arrange the message for the right order and the right emphasis. Because of the principle of end-focus and end-weight, the final position in a sentence or clause is, in neutral circumstances, the most important. But the first position is also important for communication, because it is the starting point for what the speaker wants to say: it is (so to speak) the part of the sentence which is familiar territory in which the hearer gets his bearings. Therefore the first element in a sentence or clause is called the Topic (or Theme). Instead of the subject, you may make another element the topic by moving it to the front of the sentence (fronted topic).

Besides fronting there are other ways of giving prominence to this or that part of the sentence: 1) cleft sentences (it-type) The cleft sentence construction with emphatic it is useful for putting focus (usually for contrast) on a particular part of a sentence expressed by a noun (group), a prepositional phrase, and an adverb of time or place, or even by a clause. It was from France that she first heard the news. 2) cleft sentences (wh-type) The wh-type is useful for putting focus on the verb, by using the substitute do: 3) wh-clauses with demonstratives It is a common type of sentence in English which is similar to wh-cleft sentences. This is how you start the engine. 4) auxiliary do You can emphasize a statement by putting do, does, or did in front of the base form of the verb. I do feel sorry for Roger. 5) the passive Passive constructions vary the way information is given in a sentence. The passive can be used: —for end-focus —for end-weight where the subject is a clause I was astonished that he was prepared to give me a job. —for emphasis on what comes first

There are three kinds of inversion: 1. grammatical ( in questions Is he at home? In conditional clauses introduced asyndetically Had he gone to her aid he would only have got himself caught) 2. communicative ( to provide the final position in the sentence for the communicatively most important part) 3. emphatic - in sent. Beginning the words having a negative or restrictive meaning (never had he spoken with a more fiery eloquence)

4 0 . M a k i n g t e x t s

A S P E CT S O F C O H ES I O N . Both spoken and written English use certain devices to keep the meaning clear and to express it more economically. These devices include ways of avoiding répétition, either by choosing alternative words and phrases or by missing out words, phrases or clauses. The same devices provide cohésion in the use of language.

TYPES OF TEXT REFERENCE Substitution and ellipsis are both devices for avoiding the unnecessary répétition of words or phrases in speech or writing. Substitution consists of replacing one word or phrase with another.

SUBSTITUTION OF A NOUN The most common substitutes here are pronouns (personal, posses­sive or reffexive): We can use the pronouns one/ones (to refer to countable singular/plural nouns) after adjectives or demonstratives.

SUBSTITUTION OF A VERB Verbs are substituted for by relevant auxiliaries or modals:

SUBSTITUTION OF A CLAUSE We use verbs like expect/think/imagine/believe with so to express an opinion, belief or intention, without repeating the preceding statement or question. We usually try to avoid using the same verb in the answer. i wonder if privatising the post office will make the postal service more efficient.

FEATURES OF DISCOURSE There are several principles and conventions which we foljow in discourse THE INFORMATION PRINCIPLE When speaking or writing in English, we usually séquence words so that we move from something known (already mentioned or obvious from the context) at the beginning of the sentence to something new at the end.

THE END-WEIGHT PRINCIPLE In English we prefer to put long and complex phrases at the end of a sentence. English prefers sentences to be 'light* at the beginning (before the main verb) and 'heavy' at the end.

MANIPULATING GRAMMAR And VOCABULARY. In order to follow the ordering principles, we bave to choose suitable vocabulary and grammar.

LINKING EXPRESSIONS We use various words and phrases at the beginning of a sentence to express a relationship between what we are about to say and what we have just said. The table below contains some common examples of sentence linkers: , additive linkers(Furthermore, Similarly, In addition. On top of this, What's more) adversative link­ers (introducing contrasting infor­mation) (However, Nevertheless, Despite this,) causal linkers (introducing the resuit of previous information) (Consequently, So,Therefore, Thus, Hence,) temporal linkers (expressing a relationship of time or séquence with the previ-ous information) Then, After that. An hour later, Finally, Atlast, In the meantime, Soon after, Previously.

PARALLELISM Although we try to avoid repeating words, a useful way of making a text cohesive is to use similar grammar in différent sentences, for example the same tense or aspect, similar Word order or repeating a particular grammatical form: APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE Certain forms and grammatical patterns are more suitable for formai situations: passives, subjunctives, infinitive phrase subjects and non-defining relative clauses. There are other patterns which we usually use for more informal situations.