1.Subject matter of phonetics. Its components, connection with other sciences.

Phonetics deals with speech sounds.

It studies the sound matter, its aspect and functions.

The phonetic system of English consists of the following 4 components which constitute what is called the pronunciation of English:

1 speech sounds 2 the syllabic structure of words 3 word stress 4 intonation (prosody).

The difference between the sounds doesn’t depend upon the position of the sound within a word. Such sounds are called phonemes. Bit-pit, set-sat. In such cases we deal with phonological appositions. Such sounds are called allophones (when the difference between two sounds depends on phonetic environment then these sounds are not different ones but they are variants of one and the same phoneme).( fell-light)

Phonetically the number of sounds that we actually pronounce and hear is much greater than the number of letters. One letter may be used to represent two or more phonemes. Transcription is a set of symbols representing speech sounds.

While teaching phonetics we must bear in mind two types of mistakes - phonetic and phonological.

Branches of phonetic: 1 a)The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in motion, the movements of speech organs and coordination of these movements in the production of single sounds is called articulatory(physiological) phonetics b) The branch of phonetics investigating the hearing process is known as auditory or perceptive phonetics. 2 Acoustic phonetics studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speakers mouth and the listener’s ear.

3The branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structure, word accent and prosodic features such as pitch, stress, tempo is called phonology( functional or linguistic phonetics).

Phonetics is divided into 2 major components: 1 segmental (deals with individual sounds) 2 suprasegmental (deals with larger units of connected speech, syllables, words, phrases, texts).

Phonetics is connected with linguistic and non-linguistic sciences.

Through the system of rules of reading it is connected with grammar and it helps to pronounce correctly the endings of plural forms, so on. Sometimes intonations servers to distinguish logical predicate of the sentence.

Phonetics is also connected with lexicology. The right place of the word stress can help to single out certain nouns from verbs formed by a conversion – `abstract – to ab`stract. Homographs can be differentiated only due to pronunciation ( wind). Due to the position of word stress we can distinguish between homonymous words and word groups ( blackbird – black bird)

Phonetics is also connected with stylistic for intonation and components. Very often the writer helps the reader to interpret his ideas through special remarks and words. Repetition of words, phrases, sounds. Alliteration-repetition of similar or identical sounds helps to impart a melodic effect and express certain emotions.

Mechanisms of speech production

A. the POWER m consists of the: diaphragm, bronchi, windpipe, glottis, larynx, mouth cavity and nose cavity

The PM disturbs the flow of air. The air stream released by the lunges goes through the windpipe and comes to the larynx. From the larynx the air stream passes to the supraglottal cavities (pharynx, larynx, mouth and nasal cavities). When the soft palate is lowered the air goes to the nasal cavity. When raised – to the mouth cavity.

B. the VIBRATOR m consists of the vocal chords – 2 elastic folds, may be opened/closed completely/incompletely. The opening between them – glottis

The pitch of the voice is controlled mostly by the tension of the vocal chords. Voice produced by the vocal chords vibration is modified by the shape and volume of the air passage

When the vocal chords are brought together and they open suddenly by the air stream there comes a sort of coughing noise – glottal stop.

C. the RESONATOR m consists of the pharynx, larynx, mouth cavity and nasal cavity.

D. the ABSTRACTOR m consists of the tongue, lips, teeth, soft palate with the uvula, hard palate and alveolar/teeth ridge

All the organs of speech are divided into active and passive. Active move

2.

Modification of sounds in connected speech.

1.)in isolation

The complete articulation of a speech sound when pronounced by itself in isolation consists of 3 stages:

1. the on-glide stage: the articulatory organs move to the position necessary for the articulation of a sound

2.the hold-stage:the articulatory organs are kept in the position for a certain period of time

3.the off-glide stage:the articulatory organs return to the position of the rest

In the process of speech the articulatory organs are moving continually and the sounds mostly merge one into another.Very often 3 the stages of articulation aren`t reserved.The off-glide of the preceding sound serves as the on-glide of the following sound

2).In connected speech the sounds are subdivided in general into 2 main types of influence:

1.the reciprocal influence of neighbouring sounds

2.the influence on sounds by largest speech units and their elements.

The 1 st group of processes are сombinative changes,the 2nd one-positional changes.The majority of changes in English are combinative.

Modification of English consonants.Assimilation(direction,degree of completeness,degree of stability)

The majority of changes in English are combinative.As a result of mutual interaction of speech sounds in connected speech there a number of phonetic processes. Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the joining sound.Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to direction,degree of completeness and degree of stability.Assimilation can effect the place of abstruction and the active organs of speech,the work of the vocal cords,the position of the lips and the position of the soft palade and the manner of the release of the plosive consonants.

1.)Direction of assimilation: The influence of the neighbouring sounds in English can act in a progressive,regressive and double(reciprocal) direction.When some articulatory natures of the following sounds are changed under the influence of the preceding sound which remains unchanged,assimilation is progressive(plural forms of nouns,voiced consonants(s) influence the newt consonants and become (z): begs-(begz)

Grandmother(granmother)-complete assimilation

When the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one,assimilation is regressive:width(waido)-interdental(th) influences d and it becomes dental.

When 2 adjecent sounds influence each other assimilation is reciprocal(double).(Twice:here sound(t) becomes rounded under the influence of sound(w) and sound(w) becomes partially devoiced under the influence of voiceless(t).

2.)Degree of completeness: According to it assimilation can be complete and incomplete.It is complete when 2 neighbouring sounds become alike or merge into one.It always takes place when 2 sounds differ only in 1 articulatory feature:cupboard-(pb) merge into (b).

Assimilation is incomplete when the lightnesss of the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features:place(l becomes partially devoiced under the influence of voiceless p).

3.)Degree of stability:some changes which have taken place over a period of timewithin words are historical:

Pleasure(sj)-(з),

Situation(tj)-(ts),

Ort yard-orchard(2 words assimilated into 1).

Assimilation which occurs in every day speech is called living:

did you(did ju:) (didзu:)

let you out(letju.aut) (letsu.aut)

Assimilation (influence of the vocal cords, the active organ of speech, The manner of noise production)

Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes more like a neighbouring one.

Vocal cords:

1. the sonorants are partially devoiced when preceded by voiceless consonants (p, t, k, s): place, twice, small, smart

2. Contracted forms of is and has, possessive plural form, first person singular will be voiced by the preceding voiced

3. ed [t], [d]

The active organ; lips

Consonants followed by the sonorant w change their lip position, become lip-rounded: twice, twinkle

Soft palate; nasal cons may influence the neighbouring plosives. D sometimes changes into n under the influence of the preceding n: handsome

Or into m if followed by m; handmade, grandmother.

Nasal plosion- in the sequence of a plosive followed by a nasal sonorant the manner of articulation is involved which results in the nasal plosion release: sudden, not now, at night.

Lateral plosion- in the sequence of a plosive followed by the lateral sonorant l the noise production of the plosive stop is changed into the lateral stop: settle, table, little

Loss of plosion- in the sequence of 2 plosive cons the former loses its plosion: glad to see you, great trouble

Accommodation.

Is when a cons is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or visa versa: Never- e is slightly nasalysed, morning, come in

Elision.

When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid speech:

• initial w, k, g may be dropped: write, know

• medial t, d are dropped in a cluster of 3 cons: soften, garden

• final b is dropped in the cluster of mb: lamb, climb

Reduction.

Is one of the wide-spread sound changes.Qualitative and quantitative weakening in unstressed position is determined by : the position of the vowel in the word, stress, tempo of speech, rhythm.

The descrease of a vowel quantity (shortening)- is quantitative modification.

The shortening of the vowel length in unstressed position: blackboard, sorrow.

Qualitative modification occurs in unstressed position : man-sportsman- the quality of vowel is reduced to the neutral sound [ә]

3.

Syllabic structure of English. Syllable division

Syllable- a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound combination one of which is heard more prominent than the others. The most prominent, being the peak or the nucleus, is called syllabic. Syllabic sounds are generally vowels or sonorants

A syllable can be a single word (bear), a part of a word (Paris), a part of a grammatical form of a word (longer)

Types of syllables:

V-type/uncovered open/fully opened – formed by a vowel

CV type/ covered open/ initially opened – formed by cons+vowel

VC type/ uncovered closed/ finally covered – by vowel+cons

Covered closed/ fully closed – by cons+vowel+cons

Syllable division

Important when picturing scales, putting stress mark

To define the syllabic boundary it is necessary to analyse the syllable on two levels: orthography and phonetics.

If we take orthography into consideration:

1. in affixal words the syllable boundaty coincides with the morphological one: dis-place, un-able

2. in words with CVCV structure the boundary is after the accented vowel: ci-ty, ta-ble

If we take phonetic into consideration

1. in words of CVC structure the syllabic boundary is after the intervocalic cons.: [sit-i], [teib-l]

2. in words of CVS,VS structure the boundary is after the intervocalic sonorant: inner [in-э], cinema [sin-эm-э]

3. English diphthongs are unisyllabic, triphthongs - disyllabic

Some other general rules are:

1. the intervocalic cons. often belongs to the following syllable (a-bout)

2. intervocalic combinations of cons. Belong to the following syl.sound if such combination is typical for English [naets-rэli] (naturally)

Theories of syllable formation

There are different points of view on syllable formation which are briefly the following.

1. The most ancient theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. This theory is primitive and insufficient

2. The expiratory (chest pulse or pressure) theory by R.H. Stetson states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are expiration pulses. This theory is inconsistent because it is quite possible to pronounce a number of syllables with a single expiration or one articulatory effort, e.g. seeing/si:in/

3. Another theory of syllable put forward by O. Jespersen is generally called the sonority theory. The theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there are peaks of prominence or sonority. Jespersen established the scale of sonority of sounds. According to the the scale the most sonorants are back vowels(low/a:, o:, /,mid/ e,з:э/,high/i:,i,u:,u/), then go semi-vowels/w,j/ and sonorants/l,r,m,n,/, then voiced/v,z,d/ and voiceless consonants/b,d,g/,voiceless plosive consonants/p,t,k/

Sounds are grouped around the most sonorous ones, which form the peaks of sonority in a syllable. Two points of lower sonority constitute the beginning and the end of one syllable.

Compare melt and metal , in the first word /e/ is the most sonorous sound, the only peak of sonority, it is a one-syllable word. In the word metal there are two peaks of sonority /e/ and /i/, it`s a two-syllable word.

The sonority theory helps to establish the number of syllables in a word, but fails to explain the mechanism of syllable division because it doesn’t state to which syllable the weak sound at the boundary of two syllables belongs.

4. The “arc of loudness” or ” arc of articulatory tension” is based on LV Shcherba statement that the centre of a syllable is the syllable forming phoneme. Sounds which precede or follow it constitute a chain or an arc which is weak and the beginning and in the end and strong in the middle.

If a syllabic consists of a vowel, its strength increases in the beginning reaches the maximum of loudness and then, gradually decreases. Consonants within a syllable are characterized by different distribution of muscular tension/ Shcherba distinguishes the following types of consonants: Finally strong(initially weak), they occur at the beginning of the syllable Finally weak(initially strong), they occur at the end of a closed syllable Double picked(combination of two similar sounds) in their articulation the beginning and the end are energetic and the middle is weak. Acoustically they produce an impression of two consonants /gud`dei/

For example, in the words cab, за the consonants /k/ and /з/ , that begin the syllables, are finally strong, that is their articulatory strength increases to the end of /k/ and /з/.(they are also initially weak).These consonants begin the arc of loudness.

The theory of muscular tension. In most languages there is the syllabic phoneme in the centre of the syllable which is usually a vowel phoneme or, in some languages, a sonorant. The phonemes preceding or following the syllabic peak are called marginal. The tense of articulation increases within the range of prevocalic consonants and then decreases within the range of postvocalic consonants.

In the word misspell the double picked /ss/ occurs the junction of two syllables. The sound /s/ is strong at both ends and weak in the middle phonologically it consists of two successive allophones of the same phoneme

A syllable can be defined as a phonetic unit which is pronounced by one articulatory effort accompanied by one muscular contraction which results acoustically and auditorily in one uninterrupted arc of loudness.

None of the theories mentioned above are reliable in the definition of the syllabic boundary. To define the syllabic boundary it is necessary to analyze the syllable on two levels: articulatory-auditary (phonetic-phonological, to take into consideration the structural pattern of the syllable.

Syllable Division in WRITING.

To define the syllabic boundary it is necessary to analyse the syllable on two levels: articulatory-auditary(phonetic-phonological, to take into consideration the structial pattern of the syllable.

Different languages are characterized by different types of their syllabic structure in writing and in phonetics.

Division of words into syllables in writing(Syllabographs) is based on morphological principles. The morphological principle of word division in orthography demands that the pert of a word which is separated, should be either a prefix, or a suffix or a root (morphograph): un-divided, utter-ance, pun-ish, be-fore.

However, if there are two or three consonants before ing, these consonants may be separated in writing:

Gras-ping, puz-zling

Words can be divided in writing according to their syllabic structure, un-kind-li-ness. They can also be divided according to their meaning, spot-light

The rules of syllable division in English:

1. In affixal words the syllabic boundary coincides with the morphological boundary: dis-place, be-come, un-able, count-less

2. In words with CVCV structure the syllabic boundary is after accented vowel:

Farmer, city, table

There are 6 rules to help with dividing a word in writing:

NEVER divide a word within a syllable

NEVER divide an ending(a suffix) of two syllables such as -able,-ably,-fully

With the exception of –ly, NEVER divide a word so that an ending of two letters such as –ed, -er, ic begins the next line

NEVER divide a word so that one of the parts is a single letter.

NEVER divide a word of one syllable.

NEVER divide a word of less than 5 letters pity

Parts of orthographic and phonetic syllable do not always coincide.

Word Phonetic syllables Orthographical syllables

(Syllabographs)

Table teib-l ta-ble

Laden leid -n la-den

Spanish - Span-ish

4.

Intonation-

complex unity of nonsegmental or prosodice fitures of speech: melody, pitch of voice, sentense stress, temperal character, pistics (duration, posation, tampoe), rythm, tember. There`re no lang-s which are spoken as a monoton. I. Orgonises a sentence, determines comunicative types of sent-s, devides sent-es into intonation groups (complete part of sentense), expresses attitude. 1 Pitch component (malady) – the changes in the loudness of voice in connected speech. The pitch range of the whole intonation unite is the interval between the highest and the loewst pitch syllables. Pitch level: high, midium, low. 2 Sentence stress- the greatest prominence of 1 or more words are important in the sentence. The prominence of these very words is acieved through the dreat afforce of utterance, changes in the direction of voice, pitch constituting, the nuclear tone. In tone groups stress` may undergo alterations under the influence of rythm but there`re some rules concernig ` and un` words in the alterance. N, Adjectives generally `. form words, pronounes, personal and posessive un`. But any part of speech may be ` if important (`what does `she `meen?) 3Rythm- regular alteration of stress and un` syllables. The unites of the rythmical structure of an utterance are stressed (rythmic) groups- unite whith a stressed syllable and any unstressd syllables which may go before & aftr it. Unstressed syllables have a tandency to cling to the preceeding `ed syllable –enclitics, to yhe following –proclitics. In E only initial un`ed syllables cling to the following `ed syllable. Noninitial un`ed S are usually enclitics. Rules forming rythmical groups1 any un`ed S at the beginning of the word group goes with the following `ed group (i`d like a cup of tea) 2if un`ed S is pert of the same word as the `ed S they belong to the same rythmic group (panter side – paint aside) 3If the un`ed S is closely connected grammatically to the ` word alhtough not a part of that word they belong to the same rythmic group (put it in the table) Each rythmic group is pronounced at the same period of time, un`ed s-s more rapidly. Proclitics faster enclitics. Tempoe- relative speed with which sentences and intonation groups are pronounced. Posation and tamber- the number and the length of poses affect the general tamber of speech. A slowest tempoe makes the atterance more prominent.Pauses between 2 sent-s are longer tan between int group and are marked by || (parallel bars) between int group by 1 bar. Un`ed syllables by dots, half`ed by empty circuls, `ed syllable by dashes, curves. Functionaly Pauses are: syntactic (separate phrases, int groups), emphatic (to make prominent certain parts of an utterance), hesitation (in spantanious speech). Long sent-s are devided into Int group. Group division depends on the meaning of the sentence, the grammatical structure and the style of speech. Int. Pattern contains the number of syllables and consists of the parts: 1prehead includes un`ed and half`ed syllables preceeding the 1 `ed syllable 2the head - ` and un`ed syllables beginig with the 1 `ed syllable up to the last 3 the nucleus- last `ed syllable, most important one 4the tail –un`ed and half`ed following the nucleus. The changes that take place in the nucleus are nucleur tones. The nucleus defines the communicative type of the sentence. Types of nucleus (low f, low r, fall r, high f, high r, mid level) . prehead (low, mid, high, rising). Scales: assending (falling, stepping, sliding, scandent) and assending(-“-). Level: high, mid, low. Exedental rise – upbroken descending scale.

ENGLISH INTONATION PATTERN AND ITS USE.

Long sentences, simple extended, compound and complex are subdivided into the intonation groups division depends on the meaning of the sentence, the grammatical structure of the utterance and the style of speech.

Each intonation group is characterized by definite intonation pattern. Intonation patterns contain a number of syllables, and consist of the following parts:

The pre-head –unstressed and half-stressed syllables preceding the first stressed syllable.

The head - stressed and unstressed syllables beginning with the first stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable, ( between the pre-head and the nucleus).

The nucleus - the last stressed syllable ,the main accented syllable. The tail - unstressed and half-stressed syllables following the nucleus.

The rise and fall that takes place in the nuclear are called Nuclear Tones.

The nucleus defines the communicative type of the sentence.

There are 4 communicative type of the sentence:

Statements Questions Imperatives/Commands Exclamations

Types of the nuclear:

Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, Fall-Rise, Midlevel

in the phrase Not at all.

—>Not at \ all (reserved, calm). Low Fall —>Not at all) (surprised, concerned). High Fall —>Not at / all (encouraging, friendly). Low Rise —> Not at / all (questioning). High Rise \ Not at / all (intensely encouraging, protesting). Fall-Rise /Yes, I please Low Rise \ Yes, / please Fall-Rise

According to the changes in the voice speech the pre-head can be :

low … mid … high … rising . . .

SCALES

Descending нисх, ascending восх, level

According to the direction of pitch movements within or between syllables

descending and ascending scales can be

Falling ___ . . ____ ____ . .

Stepping ___ . . . ____ . .

Sliding \ . \ . \ . \ ..

Scandent (лазающая)_____ . ----- . точечки должны быть выше ----- . .___

--

LEVEL High emotional…___ на одн. Уровне Mid в центре на од. Low grumbling…-----…

If one of the words in the descending scale is made specially prominent a vertical arrow before the dash which indicates the stressed syllable on the scale or before the word made specially prominent in the text. This word is called Accidental Rise, especially prominent and the type of scale is called unbroken descending scale

My friend is the (стрелка) most attractive girl.

On the scales(staves) unstressed syllables are indicated by dots . half-stressed by empty dots o and stressed syllables by dashes, curves ` /

5.

English stress

In English we do not sat each syllable with the same force or strength. In 1 word we accentuate 1 syllable. The syllables that are not stressed are weak and quiet.

There are two rules about word stress:

• one word - one stress

• the stress is always on a vowel

S in isolated word is termed word stress In connected speech – sentence stress.

Stress is indicated by placing a stress mark before a syllable. English speakers use word stress to communicate rapidly and accurately. If you don’t hear the word clearly you can still understand a w because of position of the stress: ‘photograph, pho’tograph.

There are three main signals of stress:

• pitch change

• length of syllable

• vowel quality.

In stressed syllable: the force of utterance is greater, the pitch of the voice is higher, the quantity of the vowels is greater

All English vowels may occur in accented syllables./I, u, eu/ - tend to occur in unstressed syllables, syllables with syllabic /l, m, n/ are never stressed

In stressed syllables:

- English stops have a complete closure,

- fricatives have full friction

- features of fortis/lenis distinction are clearly defined

In E word stress is free – it may fall on a syllable in a word; ‘mother, oc’casion,

S in E is also shifting that helps to differentiate different parts of speech: ‘import – to im’port.

Strong and weak forms of words

In actual speech there is a great number of words which are pronounced in the weak or contracted form.

The use of weak and contracted forms:

1. If a word is stressed the strong form must be used.

2. Strong forms are used for a preposition between an unstressed syllable and a pronoun or the end of the intonation group even if word is unstressed: /aim ˛kΛmiŋ tu: ju/.

3. Demonstrative pronounce always have strong form: that’s exactly what I want.

4. Weak forms ending in /ə/ are not used before vowels.

5. The weak forms of words beginning with /h/: have, has, he… may or may not be ?h/ - less.

6. HAVE as a main verb is usually in the strong form. In speech contracted forms with HAVE should be used I’ve, we’ve… (never he has, she has).

7. Sonorants /l/ /m/ /n/ in contracted forms are typically syllabic: bread and butter /’bread n˛bΛtə/.

8. In contracted forms ‘s is pronounced as /z/ after all lenis and after vowels: Van’s come /vænz ˛kΛm/; ‘s as /s/ after fortis: Pete’s, Lack’s…; is as /iz/ after /s/ /z/ /∫/ /t∫/ /3/; has is pronounced as /əz/.

9. Some common grammatical words do not have a regular weak form: on, up, when, one, what, where, then.

6. Standard English pronunciation

English is the national language of GB, the USA, Austria, New Zealand, and Canada. It is native to people who live in India, Israel, Malta. English was originally spoken in English and South Eastern Scotland. Then it was introduced to the greater part of Scotland and Ireland.

In 17-18 it was brought to North America. In 18-19 it was exported to Australia, New Zealand and South Africa because of colonial expansion. It became widely spread in Wales at that time. Wales E. Is very similar to Southern E. In 20 century American E. Became to spread in Canada, Latin America and so on. Nowadays two main types of E. Are spoken:

English-English

American-English

According to British dialectologies the following variants of English are referred to the English based group:

English-English

Welsh-E

Australian-E

New-Zealand-E

To the American based group:

US-E

Canadian-E

Scottish and Irish-E fall somewhere between the two.

So some phoneticians combine E-E, W-E, S-E, New-Z-E into the British English subgroup on the ground of political, geographical and cultural unity.

B-E is spoken in Australia. New-Zealand. Europe and Russia, but A-E is more widely spread in the world.

In every country there exist a national standard of pronunciation. In Great Britain it is PR or receipt, in US-GA (General American) or American Network E. In Canada- General Canadian. It is pronunciation of educated people, news, TV and radio. It has long believed that RP is a social marker, is prestige accent of an English man. In the 19 it was received. It was the language of London aristocracy and court. Then it lost its local characteristic and was finely fixed as a ruling ascent often referred to the Queen’s ascent. It was also the ascent taught at public schools. With the spread of educated people who did not belong to the upper classes were eager to modify the ascent in the direction of social standard. RP tells us about a person’s social position and educational background. If speakers have it you can not tell where this man came from. When in 1920 radio broadcasting began it was adopted by BBC. It was described by Daniel Johens in 1970-1980.

RP is no longer as widely spread as it was about 50 years ago. It is still the standard for Royal Family. Parliament, the Church, The Court. It is no longer the ascent of alit. It is best described as educated ascent. Professor Gimson suggested that it is convenient to distinguish 3 main types of RP.

1. The conversational RP, used by older generation.

2. General RP (BBC, newspapers)

3. Advanced RP (young people mostly from the upper classes)

In the latest edition og Gimson work RP are subdivided into General RP, Refined RP (upper classes) and Regional RP.

Modified RP continues to retain considerable stages: it has been long the main ascent taught to foreigners who wanted to learn a British model. It is widely used abroad. RP is a pronunciation of standard British English.

English comprises many accents and dialect. One of them is cockney. It is the speech of working class in London.

At the beginning of 1980 there appeared a new tendency in the English pronunciation- Estuary English. This term was introduced by David Rosewarne.

1. Decline of week i

2. glotting

3. vocalization

4. intrusive r

Classification of English consonants according to the manner of articulation

The manner of articulation of cons. is determined by the type of obstruction, it can be complete and incomplete. When it is complete the organs of speech are in contact and the air stream meets a closure in the mouth or nasal cavities, in case of incomplete - the active organ of speech moves towards the point of articulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them.

According to the manner of articulation cons. may be:

1 Occlusive – are sounds in the production of which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in the mouth cavity. Occ. Noise cons. are

called stops because the draft is completely stopped at some point of articulation and than it is released

with a slight explosion that is why they are also called plosives.

These cons. may be voiced and voiceless

Occlusive noise voiceless (fortis) – p, t, k

Occlusive noise voiced (lenis) - b, d, g

Occlusive sonorants are also made with a complete abstraction but the oft palate is lowed

Occlusive sonorants (nasals) - m, n, ŋ

2 Fricatives\constrictive – are sounds in the production of which the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the resonator so the air passage is constricted. Constructive noise cons. are called Fricatives because the air stream

escapes through the constrictive passage with fiction.

Voiceless (fortis) fricatives – f, s, h, Ө, ſ

Voiced (lenis) fricatives – v, z, g, ð

Constrictive sonorants are also made with incomplete obstruction – but with a rather wide air passage.

Constrictive sonorants – w, r, l, j

When we pronounce constrictive sonorants the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth cavity - so they are called oral.

3 Affricates\ occlusive constructive – are noise cons. sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some fiction.

Voiceless noise affricate - tſ

Voiced noise affricate - dZ

4 Rolled - are sounds pronounced with periodical momentary obstruction when the tip of the tongue touches quickly several times against the teeth rage and vibrate in he air stream. There are no rolled cons. in English (Russian – р and р’)

Classification of English consonants according to the place of articulation

1 Labial – are made by lips

↓ ↓

Bilabial (both lips) p, b, w, m labio-dental (upper teeth and lower lip) f, v

2 Lingual

↓ ↓ ↓

Fore lingual Mediolingual Back lingual

Articulated with the teeth are produced with the front are also called velar

or he blade of the tongue. part of the tongue – always because they are produced

May be apical (when the tip palatal - j with the back part of the

of the tongue is active) tongue raised high towards

interdental - Ө, ð the soft palate – k, g, ŋ

dental – only Russian

alveolar - t, d, s, z, n, l

post-alveolar - r

palate-alveolar - tſ, ſ, dZ, g

↓ ↓

Dorsal Cacuminal

There is no such sounds when the tip of the tongue

in English is at the back part of the

teeth ridge – r

3 Glottal

Glottal cons. are articulated in the glottis and that is -

1Sonorants m, n, l, r, w, j, ŋ

2Noise → voiced (lenis\weak) b, d, g, v, z, ð, dZ, Z

↓

Voiceless (fortis\strong) p, t, k, f, h, Ө, s, ſ, tſ

Vowel end, vowel length.

Vowels are normally made with the air stream that needs no closure or narrowing in the mouth or nasal cavities, that is why in the production of vowel sounds there is no noise component characteristic of consonant sounds. 1 Stability of articulation. According to this principle all vowels are divided into 3 groups: - pure vowels (monophthongs), diphthongs, diphthongoids( i:, u:). Monophthongs are vowels , the articulation of which is almost unchanging. In t5he pronunciation of diphthongs the organs of speech glide from one vowel position to another within one syllable. The starting point (nucleus) is strong. The glide which shows the direction of the quality change is weak. In the pronunciation of diphthongoids the articulation is slightly changing but the difference between the starting point and the end is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs.2 Lip position. When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are turned to be unrounded. When the lips are drown together so that the opening between them is more or less round vowels are called rounded: o: , o , u: , u .3 Quality of the vowel end. If a stressed vowel is followed by a strong voiceless consonant the end of the vowels is strong and the vowel is called checked. If a vowel is followed by weak voiced consonant or by non-consonant at all the end of the vowel is very weak and the vowel is called unchecked or free. 4 Vowel length. All English vowels are divided into short and long. Vowel length may depend on the number of linguistic factors: a) position of the vowel in a word b) word stress c) the number of syllables in a word. A) In the terminal( конечная) position the vowel is the longest. It shortens before a voiced consonant and it is the shortest before a voiceless consonant ( Be: bead’ beat ) B) Vowel is longer in a stressed syllable than in an unstressed one. (‘forecast – to fore’cast) C) A vowel; is longer in a monosyllable word than in polysyllabic words.

Classification of English vowels according to the tongue position

Vowels are normally made with the air stream that needs no closure or narrowing in the mouth or nasal cavities, that is why in the production of vowel sounds there is no noise component characteristic of consonant sounds.

The tongue may move forward, backward, up and down thus changing the quality of the vowel sound. When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth and the front part of it is raised to the hard palate a front vowel is pronounced: i: e эe. When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but slightly retracted a front retracted vowel is pronounced: I . When the front part of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate the vowel is called central: /\, 3:, нейтралка. When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and the back of it is raised towards the soft palate a back vowel is pronounced: a: o o: When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth but is slightly advanced a back advanced vowel is pronounced: u. Moving up and down in the mouth various parts of the tongue may be raised to different height towards the roof of the mouth. When the front or the back of the tongue is raised high towards the palate the vowel is called high or close: I i: u: u When the front or the back of the tongue is as low as possible in the mouth cavity low or open vowels are pronounced: эe a: o: o. When the highest part of the tongue is in the position intermediate between the close and the open one midvowels are pronounced: e /\ 3: нейтралка. Phoneticians distinguish broad, narrow variants of close, mid and open vowels. According to the movement of the tongue within the articulation of the diphthongs from the nucleus to the glide diphthongs are divided into closing and centering. Closing: ei oi ai эu au Centering: iэ eэ uэ.

close	Broad I u Narrow i: u:
mid	Broad /\ нейтралка Narrow e 3:
open	Broad эe a: o Narrow o: