expressive /emphatic / stylistic inversion. It is met in sentences, beginning with a secondary member of the sentence which has a negative or restrictive meaning (never, only, hardly, in vain, little, not a sound): Never in my life had I seen such a beautiful lady! Not a sound did he utter!

1. Inversion of a predicative which is the theme, the communicative center: Terrible was the night!

2. Inversion of a predicative part in clauses of concession and reason: Tired as he was, he went on working!

3. Inversion in the structure of a phrasal verb, when the adverbial part comes first: In came Mr. Pickwick. Up flew the rocket.

Inversion is also met in the clauses of reason and concession. In clauses of unreal condition it is possible with the verbs should, were, could, had: Should he be out, call me at once. Were he one of our team, the experiment would have been a success. Had he been there, he would have helped them.

But there are many cases when secondary members of the sentence appear in some unusual places: The details of his system we cannot enter into here! (there is no subject – inversion, but the sentence is opened by a prepositional object); His vest he arranged in the same place!

In many theoretical books the cases when secondary members of the sentence are shifted, are also referred to as inversion. The term “inversion” is used not only in relation to subject-predicate inversion, but in relation to such shifts, when the secondary members leave their contact positions and occur in a distant position in relation to the word they depend on.

It’s desirable to discriminate between subject-predicate inversion and shifts of secondary members, because subject-predicate inversion occurs at the sentence level, whereas a shift occurs at the word group level and it may or may not cause inversion.

A shift of a secondary member of the sentence is caused by the same reasons (grammatical, communicative, or expressive). If the shifted element is the communicative center it usually causes inversion: Not a word did she say! But if the shifted member of the sentence is the theme it doesn’t cause inversion: Of his love Arthur would tell nothing!

The most emphatic places in the sentence:

Theoretically speaking the middle of the sentence is the least emphatic place. The emphatic place for the communicative center in a neutral/non-expressive sentence is the end. As to the beginning, it’s the most emphatic position for the communicative center in a sentence expressively charged, but at the same time the initial position can also be occupied by the theme in a non-expressive sentence: This talk I felt to be partially theoretical.

Exercises:

1. Identify the type of adverbial paying attention to its position in a sentence. Make a conclusion about the preferable position of adverbials depending on their semantics:

1. I’m at Willy’s right now.

2. I was just flowing along smoothly.

3. <…> and our baggage would be brought later with a wagonette.

4. It allows the young to study the beliefs and attitudes held by the adherents of these religions and also by humanists.

5. I can’t get you over there in that car.

6. 8:30 tonight we’re either committing suicide or murder, one of the two.

7. As far back as 700 BC, hesoid was saying of it: “Gossip is mischievous, light and easy to raise, but grievous to bear and hard to get rid of.

8. Despite modern-day technology, no better materials have been developed which will do the job as well.

9. As for worship, or religious observance as the legislation calls it, I agree entirely with B. Clark that “compulsory acts of worship can never be educationally justified”.

10. With respect to those employees that remain technically dominant, Larson notes that even “they do not control key financial decisions”.

11. I was only asking.

2. Identify the type of invertion:

1. I haven’t got a copy of club rules. – Nor have I.

2. Not before in our history have so many strong influences united to produce a large disaster.

3. And then came that clap of thunder.

4. At no time did he indicate he couldn’t cope.

5. So badly was he affected that he had to be taught to speak again.

6. She hadn’t known much about life, nor had he.

7. “That’s the whole trouble,” said Gwen, laughing slightly.

3. Use this diagram to put the adjectives in the correct position:

How big?

1. a beautiful table (wooden / round)______________________________________

2. an unusual ring (gold)________________________________________________

3. a new pullover (nice)_________________________________________________

4. a new pullover (green)________________________________________________

5. an old house (beautiful)_______________________________________________

6. black gloves (leather)_________________________________________________

7. an American film (old)________________________________________________

8. a long face (thin)_____________________________________________________

9. big clouds (black)____________________________________________________

10. an old painting (interesting / French)______________________________________

11. a wide avenue (long)__________________________________________________

12. a metal box (black / small)_____________________________________________

13. a big cat (fat / black)__________________________________________________

14. a little village (old / lovely)____________________________________________

15. long hair (black / beautiful)____________________________________________

Lecture 13. The Composite Sentences

The modern approach to the composite is that it is a syntactic unit with more than one subject-predicate-groups/clusters, by which we mean predicative relations. Earlier grammarians in their prescriptive grammars didn’t pay much attention to a sentence in their syntactic parts, they mostly described word-groups and didn’t consider a sentence as a unit. The first to introduce the idea of the sentence as a unit (the concept of the sentence) was Brightland (18^th century). He defined the sentence as a unit consisting of one affirmation and a name and he distinguished a simple and a compound sentence: a simple – one name and one affirmation; a compound – more than one name and more than one affirmation.

Later the prescriptive and scientific grammars (the middle of the 19^th century) introduced a very important innovation: the subdivision of the compound sentence into compound proper and a complex sentence. The term “composite” was introduced by Poutsma, thus we got the so-called the thrichotomic division of sentences into simple, compound and complex (together – the composite).

One of the usual approaches to a compound sentence is that it is a sentence, whose parts are independent to such an extent that Ch. Freeze thinks a compound sentence is just a matter of intonation and punctuation. He thinks that the difference between a simple sentence and a part of a compound sentence is just punctuational.

There are at least three ways helping to avoid the ambiguity concerning the fact that a compound sentence in fact is a number of sentences:

• some grammarians try to explain it by emphasizing the complete independence of clauses of a compound sentence and the ability of isolating each member of a compound sentence without any change of its meaning or intonation;

• other grammarians just employ new terms to express more exactly the grammatical peculiarity of the combinations of sentences: “double”, “multiple” sentences;

• still others exclude the concept of a compound sentence from the structural classification of sentences.

As far as the complex sentence is concerned it is a sentence consisting of at least two parts: the main clause, which is more independent, and a subordinate clause, which depends on the main clause. But in some cases it’s difficult to see which of the two is more dependent on the other. So a complex sentence is a sentence in which one or more members of the sentence are expressed by subject-predicate groups/clusters, the parts of the complex sentence are interdependent both semantically and grammatically.

What you say, must be true. – mutually dependent.

I say, you’re absolutely right – the subordinate is more independent of the two.

As far as the subordinate clauses there are two approaches to their classification. The first is based on the syntactic function of the clause. According to it the subordinates may be subject, object, predicative, attributive, adverbial (all of them are clauses). The second is based on the part of speech which the clauses represent or whose function they perform (in Curme’s grammar). Here we find:

• substantive clauses (subject, predicate, object);

• adjective clauses (attributive);

• adverbial clauses (adverbial);

It should be mentioned that English is rich in constructions built up around a certain non-finite form. Some grammarians consider them clauses too. Bryant names them verbids – verbid clauses

Modality

Modality is one of the two ingredient parts of predication, the other being temporality. Modality and temporality are the two ingredient parts of predication.

Modality is the speaker’s attitude towards what he is speaking about. In the wide sense of the word it is any attitude – in this meaning it is normally used in literal criticism meaning the emotional key-note. According to the narrower approach modality as the speaker’s attitude from the point of view of the reality of the action – the degree of reality of the action. In the later approach two spheres of modality are to be distinguished:

• modality of reality/unreality proper which is usually marked by the category of mood – the morphological way of expressing modality;

• modality of necessity, probability, which is usually expressed by means modal verbs, words and expressions.

Modality always carries some elements of subjectivity which is clear from the very definition, but considering the two spheres we see, 1^st sphere is more objective and the 2^nd is more subjective.

Modality can be expressed at all the lingual levels:

• phonetically (intonation, emphatic stresses);

• lexically (modal verbs, phrases, words);

• grammatically (morphologically – morphologically modality is marked by the Moods);

• syntactically it can be expressed by certain syntactic structures which are not special ways of expressing modality but which may acquire some special modal change: tags, pseudo-questions and pseudo-subordinate clauses (And he is a scoundrel, that brother of yours. You’re ready, aren’t you? (in both cases – the modality of reality and assurance)). By pseudo-questions we mean sentences which are constructed like questions, but which are not questions but assertions: Do you know him? – Do I know him! (Мне ли его не знать!) By pseudo-subordinate clauses we mean constructions, which look like subordinate clauses, which are introduced by certain subordinate conjunctions, but which are also complete assertions: As if you have never heard of it! – Как будто ты не знаешь об этом! All these structures are expressively charged and they all carry the subjective modality of assurance and the objective modality of reality.

Exercises:

1. Classify these adverbial clauses according to their semantics:

1. Bessie sometimes narrated on winter evenings, when she chanced to be in good humour.

2. Mr. Miles affirmed that he would do very well if he had fewer cakes and sweetmeats sent him from home…

3. …I went to the window-seat to put in order some picture-books and doll’s-house furniture scattered there…

4. There were moments when I was bewildered by the terror he inspired, because I had no appeal whatever against either his menaces or his inflictions.

5. My racked nerves were now in such a state that no calm could soothe, and no pleasure excite them agreeably.

6. She never saw him strike or abuse me, though he did both now and then in her presence.

7. …Burns immediately left the class, and going into the small inner room where the books were kept, returned in half a minute…

8. …she took her hands out of my arm, and gazed at me as if she really did not know whether I were child or fiend.

2. According to the syntactic forms the adverbial clauses present, they can be classified into five groups: finite, ed-clauses, ing-clauses, to-clauses, verbless clauses. Use this criterion to classify the following sentences:

1. …till emerging from the total and somewhat dreary silence pervading that portion of the house we had traversed, we came upon the hum of many voices…

2. When I dared move, I got up and went to see.

3. After tea, I asked leave of the new superintendent to go to Lowton…

4. …a testimonial of character and capacity, signed by the inspectors of that institutions, should forth-with be furnished me.

5. …I was tugging at the sash to put out the crumbs on the window-sill…

3. Give your own examples illustrating modality at the phonological, lexical, grammatical and syntactical levels.

Lecture 14. Text Linguistics

Text linguistics/ textual linguistics/ text grammar is a rather new branch of linguistics. It deals with the text and regards it the highest unit of speech. If we consider isolated sentences in a discourse/ in the process of a discourse, we find that it’s very rare that one sentence expresses the complete idea, which is clear without any context. Very many things, we can’t translate it without a context and usually in order to make ourselves understood we have to produce a whole sequence of sentences which forms what is termed now discourse – the process of communication.

E.g. It’s raining and it’s cold (not equal to a phenomenon of nature).

I don’t want to go with her (we should know the whole situation both ultra- and extra linguistic).

I’m sorry!

In fact we speak not in sentences, but in texts. Interest for a good text goes back to old times, to ancient Greece (the 5^th century BC). They already wrote books of rhetoric – the problem of a good text, of constructing a good text has always been a very important problem.

Considering the text a unit we should bare in mind some peculiarities, some features:

• a definition;

• features, aspects which single out the text as a special linguistic unit.

Unlike definitions of some other linguistic units, it’s very difficult to give the definition of the text. The text is a sequence of linguistic units joined together by semantic connections and characterized by integrity (целостность), wholeness (цельность), and cohesion (связь).

Textual linguist may understand something, which is as short as a sentence or even an interjection (complete and coherent), as long as a whole text: story, novel. A text should have certain peculiar features.

Those who studied the text as a unit came to the conclusion that a text as a linguistic unit has its own semantic and structural categories. The semantic categories are:

1. information: any text should carry complete information; it should express a certain communication;

2. profundity: the text should have some depth, some food for thinking, some idea, which may either be expressed, or may be understood implicitly;

3. presupposition: there should be some level at which one communicates, otherwise there may be complete misunderstanding;

4. completeness: the text should be complete in meaning, it shouldn’t be abrupt (except for fiction where it’s a stylistic device).

As to the structural categories of the text, they are:

Integrity (целостность) and integration (how to achieve integrity) are almost alike. In integration you may use certain logical connections and connectors, a certain composition, a certain word order.

Cohesion is used to provide the logical connection (logical connectors: conjunction, parathentic words, the article, pronominalization).

Retrospection and prospection. Semantically they are profundity and are expressed with the 16 tense-aspect forms.

Polyphony: a good text usually has more than one line of thinking, of reasoning, which is most important for fiction.

Continuum – the text should continue without breaking, it shouldn’t be abrupt. Deictic (связующие) elements, tense forms, number forms, mood forms – all this provides for cohesion and continuum of a certain text.

Exercises:

Illustrate the semantic and structural categories of the following texts as linguistic units:

1. With a high number of hydrophobia chains, the polymci coalesces into a gel and can be used as a method of delivering clrugs to the body Other teams around the world have been able to lond 4-5% of-a q;:\ with a treatment drug, using a cross linking agent to covalently bind the polymer chains. The reaction which creates the covaient linkages could destroy a drug added to the gel so most producers must make the gel first and then add the drug afterwards. Professor Uchegbu':, team have come up with a whole new way of creating the polynies gel which allows for a far higher percentage of the gel to be loaned with the drug.

2. The heart is a hollow, cone-shaped organ. It is about the size of a fist and weighs approximately 230g. The base of the heart, which is directed back­wards, lies opposite the borders of the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th thoracic vertebrae. The apex is directed forwards, downwards, and to the left, and is located below the 5th left intercostal space in the mid-clavicular line. In addition to the base and the apex, three surfaces are usually described: the sterno-costal, the left and the diaphragmatic. The sterno-costal surface is limited by four borders, which are sometimes referred to as the borders of the heart. The heart is essentially a hollow muscle. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers of tissue. A serous membrane, the pericardium, forms the outer covering of the heart. The middle layer, the myocardium, is the heart muscle proper. This consists of specialized cardiac muscle fibres. Internally the heart is lined throughout with a serous membrane known as the endocardium.

3. Everyone's right to life shall be protected by law

No one shall be deprived of his life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which this penalty is provided by law.

Deprivation of life shall not be regarded as inflicted in contravention of this Article when it results from the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary

1. in defence of any person from unlawful violence,

2. in order to effect a lawful arrest or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detained,

3. in action lawfully taken for the purpose of quelling a riot or insurrection.

4) Dear Sir/Madam,

I am writing with regard to your advertisement in "The Guardian" on 10th February. I would be grateful if you could send me further information about your home exchange scheme. However I would appreciate it if you could clarify a few questions I have.

I am interested in visiting Worth Africa, particularly Tunisia, but I am only available from the 15th June to the 15th July. Do you think you may be able to find an exchange in this area at such short notice?

I have three small children so the house would need to include some facilities to keep them occupied, for example a swimming pool.

I would like to enquire exactly what type of house is required. I have a spacious cottage with a large garden that is ideal for chil­dren. I would be more than glad to send photographs and a more detailed description of our home if this would be of assistance.

I would also like to know if the flights must be booked through your organization, or separately through a travel agent.

Thank you for your kind attention. I would appreciate an answer at your earliest convenience.

Yours faithfully,

Jill Thomson

5) Night eating may be an illness

By david derbyshire science correspondent

PEOPLE who raid the fridge in the middle of the night may be suffering from a genuine medi­cal complaint and not just hun­ger pangs.

Scientists have discovered biochemical differences in the bodies of people who experi­ence uncontrollable urges to eat late at night.

The finding adds to the evidence that Night Eating Syn­drome, as it has been named, is a serious eating disorder.

Doctors proposed the syn­drome in the 1950s to explain why between one and two per cent of people admit to regularly raiding their fridges at night. Symptoms of Night Eating Syn­drome include having no appe­tite for breakfast and eating half or more of the day's food after 7pm. Sufferers wake at night hungry and their night-time feasts often consist of carbohy­drate-rich crisps and cakes.

Many people with the syn­drome are prone to stress and are at greater risk of obesity.

A team of doctors at the Uni­versity of Tromso, Norway, reports in American Journal of Physiology that they found dif­ferences in the way that night eaters' bodies react to the hor­mone that helps regulate the body's production of cortisol, the stress hormone.

Appendix The Development of the English Grammatical Theory

The first attempts to describe the grammatical system of the English language

The first attempts to describe the English language were made by Alfric (955 – 1020). He wrote Colloquy which was a series of dialogues of daily speech of boys at the monastic schools. It was just designed to instruct the scholars in the daily speech of monastery. Besides he wrote a Latin Grammar with some comments written in OE in it. He translated Latin terms by means of loans. We don’t know whether there were any other important attempts; we find some commentaries, some glossaries, but we don’t find any comprehensive book, any comprehensive work which can be considered a grammar.

Prenormative grammars (16 – 18 centuries)

Grammars in the true sense of the word began to appear in the 16^th century. We refer to them as prenormative grammars, because their aim was just to describe, to register the grammatical system of the language of that time.

William Bullocar

One of the first most comprehensive grammars of that period was written by William Bullocar in the end of the 16^th century. Before William Bullocar published his grammar William Lily published a Latin Grammar in the first half of the 16^th century. It is one of the first complete grammars of a certain language in England/in English. Lily set a certain pattern, standard of arranging the material, he was the forerunner of the many grammars that appeared later. He used the same terminology that was used in Latin but at the same time he saw something in English that wasn’t like in Latin (the use of the auxiliaries, he called them “signs”).

Bullocar’s grammar was called “Brief grammar for English”. Bullocar used Lily’s scheme but he didn’t imitate it. In Bullocar’s Grammar we find 5 cases for the noun instead of 6 cases. He divided all the parts of the speech into declinable and indeclinable.

Other grammars which appeared later are grammars written by Johnson, Butler and Wallis. They considered the existence of case. Johnson and Butler in their grammars discovered only two cases. As to Wallis he wrote his English grammar in Latin “Grammatica linguae anglicanae (the 17^th c). In this grammar we see that he had his own look at the EL of that period. He thought that case is non-existent. Besides he studied word groups in detail: the relationship between different parts of the sentence. As to the idea of the possessive case of the noun he considered it to be not a case but sort of a possessive adjective. Wallis was one of the first who formulated the new rule of the formation of Future.

Brightland was one of the first who introduced the idea of sentence. Considering the structure of the sentence he was one of the first who distinguished between a simple and a compound sentence.

The 18^th c is the end of the prenormative grammar. Then begins the era of the prescriptive or normative grammars (the middle of the 18^th century – up to now).

Prescriptive or normative grammars (the middle of the 18^th c – up to now)

As it is clear from the names the main difference between grammars of the prenormative and normative periods was that the grammars of the prenormative period just described the grammatical phenomena of the language as they were and the grammars of the prescriptive/normative period described, prescribed and proscribed. They gave recommendations what to use and how to use, and what not to use.

Some of the objections were based on usage but on some logical grounds. Sometimes the usage that they objected to went out of the use, but some of the forms still exist. But we should pay tribute to their attempts, they were very particular about the correctness of the language. They went so far as to criticize some mistakes which were to be found in some official speeches even king’s speeches. For instance in Cobbit’s grammar (the 19^th century) we find sort of an assignment to point out errors and nonsense of king’s speech and in Coold Brown’s grammar (in the 19^th century) there’s an assignment to point out blunders in the works of other grammarians both predecessors and contemporaries.

The grammarians of the prenormative and normative periods continued to argue about the number of cases in the EL Their ideas varied from 2 to 3, 4, 5.

As far as the tenses were concerned all the rules that formulated the use and the formation of the new analytical tenses were worked out in those grammars.

Much was done in working out sentence analysis. In the previous period of the prenormative grammars they didn’t write much about the sentence; the main material was devoted to the description of morphological forms and word combinations, to developing the theory of the sentence. In the prenormative and normative periods the structure of a simple or a compound sentence was described in detail. Later the distinction between a compound and a composite sentence was introduced and still later the grammarian of the beginning of the 20^th c (Poutsma) introduced the term “the composite sentence” which is universal now.

In sentence analysis some grammarians paid much attention to the hierarchy of the sentence and they came to the conclusion that there are different levels in the structure of the sentence. They also introduced the idea of expansion and singled out two operations in English – enlargement (расширение) and extention (распространение). By enlargement they meant an attribute added to the subject or object. And by extention they meant adverbial modifiers which extended the idea of either a verb or an adverb or even an adjective. The main representatives of this period are Lowth, L. Murray, Mason, Bain.

Lowth worked in the second half of the 18^th c. His most prominent work is “A short introduction to English Grammar” published in 1762. As far as the cases are concerned it was he who insisted on the 2case system for nouns: common and possessive (he introduced the very term “the Possessive case”). Besides he insisted on the 3 case system for the pronouns: nominative, possessive, objective. Scholars think that it was he who introduced the term “the Objective case”.

L. Murray (an American), (the very end of the 18^th c)

In 1795 was written “English Grammar Adapted to the different Clauses of Learners”. It was highly popular and underwent fifty editions.

We may call Murray the follower of Lowth. He used many conceptions, many schemes of Lowth. Thus he distinguished 3 cases for the noun. Murray distinguished 9 parts of speech (considered the article a different part of speech).

In Bain’s “Higher English Grammar” (1863) we find some ideas which somehow paved the way for structuralism: we find an anticipation of the modern theory of deriving a more complicated structure from a simpler one; the idea of the possibility of isolating the parts of a compound sentence.

The period of scientific grammars

By the end of the 19^th century prescriptive grammar has reached the peak of its development. All the units of the EL both morphological and syntactical were described. A need was felt for a grammar of a higher type which would give a scientific explanation of a grammatical phenomena.

One of the first grammarians of the period was Henry Sweet. His most comprehensive work is called “A new English Grammar, Logical and Historical” which was published in 1891. He was one of the first who declared the priority of the doctrine of usage (for the previous grammarians the main was the doctrine of correctness) – something which is in common use should be the guide. “Whatever is in general use in language is for that reason grammatically correct”. If something doesn’t contradict the common sense and the main rules of the language and in common use – that it is something that can be used.

The beginning of the 20^th century witnessed the work of some other great grammarians: Jespersen, Poulsma, Curme, Onions, Kruisinga, Nesfieled

All of them the authors of scientific grammars in which they not only describe the grammatical system of EL but gave some historical and logical explanations and theoretical basis.

Jeperson was one of those who paved the way for the structural approach to the language and formalized the description. It was he who introduced the symbols which are commonly used now:

S – for subject

P – for predicative

O – for object

I – for the infinitive

Jeperson spoke of ranks and described the ranks in term of the numerals: Subject – the first/the primary rank; Predicative and Object – the secondary rank

The period of scientific grammars is the very end of the 19^th century and the begining of the 20^th century. Scientific grammars particularized certain grammatical notions – explained them theoretically. They paid much more attention to the syntactical research. Some of them even introduced the idea of sentence analysis. They studied thoroughly the structure of composite sentences, the hierarchy of different levels both in a simple and in a compound sentences. They were not unanimous in the approach to the composite sentence. Some shared the opinion that a real composite sentence was a complex sentence and a compound sentence was heated as a number of independent sentences joined together. They distinguished double and multiply sentences. Many of the ideas were like forerunners of the future development of linguistics that is of the structural approach. It was a great contribution both in the general theory of language (they found some universal ideas which could be used by other branches of linguistics) and in the development of the doctrine of usage.

The 40s witnessed the development of a new type of grammar – the structural approach to studying and describing the language (description of the way the language works)

Modern grammar theories (the structural – descriptive approach, the transformational generative grammar, generative semantics, text linguistics)

The new haunches:

1. structural – descriptive approach

2. transformational – generative grammar

3. generative semantics

4. text linguistics

1. Zelec Harris formulated the aim of descriptive linguistics – “the setting up of elements and the statement of the distribution of these elements relative to each other”. Descriptive linguists concentrated their attention on formal operations: the so-called grammatical discovery procedures (дистрибутивный анализ)); sentence structure is represented in terms of immediate constituent.

Some other representatives of this approach: Charles Fries, Whitehall.

2. The aim of the generative grammar is to find out mechanisms that account for the generation of the variety of sentences of a language out of a new Kernal sentences.

The scheme of analysis:

There are several Kernal sentences and a list of transformation rules (T-rules). They have introduced the notion of the deep and the surface structure of each sentence. By the deep structure they mean the very idea, and the surface structure is how it is expressed.

3. generative semantics

It’s based on the idea of semantic level at which all the information relevant for the syntactic structure of the sentence is accumulated. This level is called the underlying or semantical structure. Here they distinguish two semantic properties in the semantic representation of a sentence:

• the proposition (мысль, ситуация)

• the modality constituence (все то, что выражает отношение)

This approach is represented in the works of Lucoff, Charles Fillmore. The latter worked out the theory of cases (6 basic cases):

John opened the door.

The door was opened by John. (the agentive)

The key opened the door.

John opened the door with a key. (the instrumental)

+ the locative

the dative

the factitive

the objective

4. text linguistics

Its aim is to provide a formal device needed for the theoretical description of discourse. Text linguistics has been developing very rapidly for the last 30 years. The supporters of this theory even insisted that it is not a separate branch of linguistics but it is above linguistics.

35