Lecture 6. The Verb General characteristics of the verb as a part of speech

Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the expression of the predicative functions of the sentence, i.e. the functions establishing the connection between the situation named in the utterance and reality.

The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically. The processual meaning of the notional verb determines its combination with a noun which may express the subject and the object of the action and its combination with an adverb as the modifier of the action. In the sentence the finite verb performs the function of the verb predicate expressing the processing categorial features of predication. The non-finite verb performs different functions according to its nature. Its non-processual functions are actualized in close combination with its processual semantic features. The non-finite forms of the verb in self-dependent use perform a potentially predicative function constituting secondary predicative centers in the sentence.

The finite verb is directly connected with the structure of the sentence as a whole. It is immediately related to morphological forms of predication, communication purposes, subjective modality, subject-object relation, gradation of probabilities.

The verb has a very wide distribution. Virtually it can combine with any part of speech in pre-/postposition. The most characteristic point of its distribution is its ability to combine with an adverb, the most typical type of connection is government.

Classification of Verbs

Classes of verbs fall into a number of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and lexico-grammatical features. On the upper level of division two unequal sets are identified: the set of verbs of full nominative value (notional verbs) and the set of verbs of partial nominative value (semi-notional and functional verbs). The first is derivationally open and includes the bulk of lexicon, the second is closed, includes limited subsets of verbs characterized by individual relation properties.

The finite verbs are characterized by the categories of:

• Tense: the Present, the Past, the Future;

• Aspect: the Indefinite (the common, the non-cont.) Aspect – the Continuous (the Progressive) Form;

• Time correlation (retrospective coordination): non-perfect – perfect;

• Voice: active – passive;

• Mood: Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive;

• The Person;

• The Number.

Semi-notional and functional verbs serve as markers of predication in the proper sense, since they show the connection between the nominative content of the sentence and reality in a strictly specialized way. These predicators include auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, semi-notional verbid introducer verbs and link verbs.

Auxiliary verbs constitute grammatical elements of the categorial forms of the verb.

Modal verbs are used with the infinitive as predicative markers expressing relational meanings of the subject attitude type. They are defective in forms and are suppletively supplemented by stative group.

Semi-notional verbid introducer verbs. Here we find sets of discriminatory relational semantics (seem, happen), of subject action relational semantics (try, fail, manage), of phrasal semantics (begin, continue).

Link verbs introduce the nominal part of the predicate within a commonly expressed by a noun, an adjective, or a similar semantico-grammatical character. They are not devoid of meaningful content.

The common specifying link-verbs fall into two main groups: the one expresses perception (feel, smell, taste) and the other non-perceptional connection (get, grow, remain, keep).

But like any notional part of speech the verb can be classed in many different ways. Thus there are other classifications:

• the morphological;

• the semantic;

• the functional;

The morphological classification of verbs is based on how the verb forms its main forms: (Past Ind, PII); accordingly the verbs are subdivided into regular (standard) and irregular (non-standard).

The are several groups of non-standard verbs:

• verbs with vowel gradation (sit – sat –sat);

• verbs with vowel gradation and the non-standard suffix -(e)n in PII (write – wrote – written);

• verbs with vowel gradation and the non-standard -t, -d (teach – taught – taught, tell – told – told);

• verbs with consonant gradation (send – sent – sent);

• verbs with two sets of forms (learn – learnt/learned);

• verbs with homonymous forms (put – put –put);

• verbs with suppletive forms (to be, to go);

• defective verbs: modal verbs – they are called defective because they have no infinitive and participles

The semantic classification is based on the general semantic meaning of the verb. Here we have two large groups:

• subject – object verbs;

• terminative – non-termative (durative) verbs.

The classification into subject – object verbs is to some extent similar to the classification into transitive/intransitive verbs. Traditionally a transitive verb is a verb which takes a direct object without a preposition, and as to the intransitive verbs they are all the others. A subject verb does not take any object, an object verb can take any object (direct, prepositional, indirect). As far as the interrelation between the subject and object verbs there is no strict line of demarcation, which means that the distribution of the verb may be considered as one of the word-building means: 1. He was running along the street and 2. She ran a restaurant.

Three instances are advisable here:

• an object verb proper (to smoke a cigarette)

• an object verb used absolutely but with an object understood (he smokes much)

• subject verb proper (all the chimneys were smoking)

Terminative / non-terminative verbs

A terminative verb denotes an action which has a limit in its development. A non-terminative verb denotes an action which doesn’t admit of any limit in its development. The verb can be terminative just by the meaning of the root (to stop), phrasal verbs are terminative (almost all of them). Sometimes the terminative character of the verb is clear from the context: He is writing a letter. – He writes well.

Non-terminative verbs usually denote perception of senses, mental perception, emotions, position in space and the like.

The term/non-term character of the verb is closely connected with the functioning of the certain grammatical forms.

The functional classification is based on the function of the verb (in the sentence):

• notional (lexical) verbs;

• semi-auxiliary verbs;

• auxiliary verbs.

Notional verbs usually denote an action or a state and function as independent members of the sentence. A semi-auxiliary verb is used to form a certain syntactic structure (a modal predicate, nominal predicate: to be, to have…). An auxiliary verb functions as a word-morpheme, and is used to generate an analytical form (to be, to have).

Exercises:

1. Identify the type of the following non-standard verbs (according to the morphological classification):

run, eat, think, sleep, can, be, let, buy, show, give, begin, cut

2. Give your own examples of the verbs used both as subject and object.

3. Classify the verbs into terminative – non-terminative (durative): work, love, respect, bring, refuse, teach, take, close, live, kill, travel, recall, study, play, sit, have.

Lecture 7. The Categories of Verbs

The Category of Aspect

Aspective verbal semantics expresses the inner character of the process denoted by the verb. It reflects the inherent method of the realization of the process irrespective of its timing. The category of aspect as a grammatical category shows the manner in which the action is either performed or represented: in English the category of aspect is based on the opposition of the continuous forms to non-continuous or infinite forms of the verb. The strong member of the opposition is the continuous form: the continuous form presents an action as a process which develops at a certain moment or a limited period of time; the indefinite form just names the action. This category has a verbid representation in the infinitive. Here it expresses the same contrast between action in progress and action non in progress: “He may be sleeping”. The gerund and the participle do not distinguish this category although there are traces of progressive meaning, esp. in the present participle: “A boy doing his homework”.

The category of aspect is a category which has been disputed for a long time. Originally the category was identified on slavonic material. In slavonic languages the category of aspect is lexical – grammatical because the difference is not purely formal: in order to form an aspective verb you should add a prefix thus changing the meaning of the verb.

Some linguists who do not find any aspective meaning in the indefinite form consider the continuous form to be one of the tense forms, which marks an action as simultaneous to some other action or time.

As a rule the continuous form is not used with non-term verbs because they denote a state, however there are numerous instances of the use of the continuous form with non-term verbs: the two main semes of the continuous form are the activity of the process and the temporary character of it – if the continuous form is used with a non-term verb it is either change in the meaning of the verb which comes to denote an activity (a semantic change) (I’m thinking of him = I think, you’re right) or if the continuous form is used with a quality in this case the dominant seme is the temporary character of the state (You’re being silly!).

The Category of Person and Number

The categories of person and number are closely connected with each other because of the situational semantics referring the process to the subject of the situation that is to its central substance which exists in inseparable unity of quality and quantity. Secondly they are immediately related to the subject. Both categories are different from the other categories of the finite verb as they do not convey any inherently verbal semantics, the nature of both of them is purely reflective. These two categories are purely formal: they formally mark the relationship between the action and the doer (the recipient) of the action.

In the present tense the expression of the category of person is divided into three peculiar subsystems. The first subsystem includes the modal verbs that have no personal inflexions; the category of person is neutralized with can, may and etc. The second subsystem is made up by the unique verbal lexeme be. It has 3 supplitive personal forms. The third subsystem presents the regular, normal expression of person with the remaining multitude of the English verbs.

The category of number can be seen with the archaic forms of the unique be, both in the present tense and in the past. The opposition of the category consists in the unmarked plural form for all the persons being contrasted against the marked singular form for each separate person, each singular person thereby being distinguished by its own, specific form.

In Russian subject – predicate agreement is purely formal: if the subject is in the plural the predicate is also in the plural and vice versa. In English we should consider several factors:

• formal agreement: the table is / the tables are;

• the semantic factor (the meaning of the subject and its structure):

nouns of multitude (the agreement is purely semantic): people, police, cattle – are used in plural if they denote a multitude and in singular if they are collective nouns:

The family was united on this question. The enemy is suing for peace.

My family are always fighting among themselves. The enemy were showing up in groups of three or four to turn in their weapons. The government have not announced a new policy. The team are playing in the test matches next week.

the subject is expressed by a group of nouns, which form a single idea, unit:

Where is my hat and gloves?

Considering the subject – predicate agreement there is a strong tendency to agree the verb predicate with the communicative center:

Fools are my theme! (Byron)

But sometimes there may be hesitations: stars was / were our only guide.

The form of the predicate depends on the syntactical construction in which the noun is used: in this case there is no general rule:

the teacher as well as the students was...;

either... or – the form of the predicate is defined by the second noun;

both... and... – the predicate is in plural;

It’s I who am to blame.

It is dictionaries that are needed.

The Tense

The expression of all grammatical tense is one of the typical functions of the verb as the meaning of process finds complete realization only if presented in certain time conditions. That’s why the expression or non-expression of tense of grammatical time together with the mood form constitutes the basis of the verbal category of finitude.

Time denotations can be absolutely and non-absolutely:

• absolutely names of time: now, last week. These expressions give a temporal characteristic of an event in reference to the present;

• the non-absolute time denotation can be either relative or factual. Relative expression of time correlates two or more events showing them either preceding the other or following the other or happening at one at the same time. The factual expression of time either states the astronomical time of an event or conveys its meaning in terms of historical landmarks: “under Eltsin”.

Two temporal categories are recognized in modern English. Both of them answer the question: what is the timing of the process?

The category of primary time provides for the absolute expression of the time of the process denoted by the verb. The formal sign of the opposition is with regular verbs, suffix –ed and with irregular verbs, phonemic change. The suffix marks the verbal form of the past time leaving the opposite form unmarked. An additional reason for identifying the verbal past – present time system as a separate grammatical category is provided by the fact that this system is specifically marked by the ‘do’ forms of the indefinite aspect.

The category of prospective time.

The contrast which underlines this category is between an after-action and non-after action. Future is the marked member of this opposition. The category of prospect is different in principal from the category of primary time while the primary time is present oriented, the prospective time is purely relative. The future form of the verb shows that the denoted process is prospected as an after-action relative to some of the action or state or event, the timing of which marks the zero level for it.

A certain modal colouring of the English Future can’t be denied, especially in the verbal form of the first person. The future of the English word is highly specific as its auxiliary are verbs of obligation and volition. In some modal uses of the verb “shall and will”, the idea of the future is not expressed at all. Within the system of the English future tense peculiar minor category is expressed which effects only the forms of the 1^st person It is constituted by the oppositions of the forms will, shall + inf. expressing voluntary or non-voluntary future. And it may be called the category of futurity option. This category is neutralized in the contracted form ‘ll.

The oppositional basis of the category of prospective time is neutralized in certain uses and the process of neutralization is connected with the shiften of the forms of primary time (present and past) into the sphere of relative tenses: “The government meets an emergency session today”. This kind of neutralizing is oppositional reduction.

Exercises:

1. Match the sentences with the meaning of the verb in the present tense:

I want a packet of crisps.	A state that exists at the present time.
Oh, my goodness. There he goes. Look at him walk.	Habitual action.
The pigment occurs in the epidermal cells.	An action that is happening ate the present time.
Here comes your mother.
He dances and moves about a lot.
She’s vegetarian but she eats chicken.

2. What verbs do not generally have a continuous form?

run, look, hate, write, believe, hear, play, listen to, climb, be, understand, know.

3. Explain the number of the verbs:

1. The family is determined to press its claim.

2. Five hundred thousand pounds was donated to build a new hospital wing.

3. The jury are all staying at the Park Hotel.

4. The jury is ready to give the verdict.

5. Physics is a very difficult subject.

6. Its I who am guilty.

7. Both Ann and Tom were late.

8. Neither Jim nor Carol has got a car.

Lecture 8. The Categories of Verbs

The Category of Mood

The category of mood (modus (lat.) – характер, модус) expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality either presenting the process as affect that happened, happens or will happen or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon. The general meaning of the category is the degree of the reality of the action. The functional opposition underlining this category is expressed in oblique mood meaning contrasted against the forms of direct mood meaning.

The Indefinite Mood is the only real mood in the English language. It represents an action as a real fact. The forms of the indefinite Mood are the tense-aspect forms of the verb.

The two non-fact (oblique) Moods in English are the Imperative Mood and the Subjunctive Mood.

The Subjunctive Mood represents an action as unreal expressing two degrees of reality: not quite real (Present, Future), quite unreal (for the Past).

Subjunctive signifies different attitude towards the process denoted by the verb, namely desire, suppositional, recommendation, and suggestion.

There are modal spective (subjunctive) mood forms:

1) the combination with may, might is used to express wish or desire, hope: May success attend you!

2) the combination should + infinitive is used in a various subordinate predicative units to express supposition, speculation, suggestion and recommendation: What ever they should say of the project that must be considered seriously.

3) the combination let + objective subjunctive + infinitive is used to express an appeal to commit an action in relation to all the persons: Let’s go back.

The subjunctive, the integral mood of unreality, presents the two sets of forms according to the structural division of verbal tenses into the present and the past: “I suggest that he should continue”. These form sets constitute the two corresponding functional systems of the subjunctive:

• the spective, the mood of attitudes;

• the conditional.

Each of these in its turn falls into two systemic subsets, so that we have 4 subjunctive form-types. And these types can be called respectively:

• subj. 1-perspective;

• subj. 2 -stipulative;

• subj. 3-contractive;

• subj. 4 modal spective.

M.A. Ganshina and N.M. Vasilevska in their turn present the system of Subjunctive Mood in the following way:

The Synthetical Moods				The Analytical Moods
Subjunctive I		Subjunctive II		The Suppositional Moods		The Conditional Moods
Simple Sentence	Complex Sentence	Present Subjunctive II (Non-Perfect Subjunctive II)	Past Subjunctive II (Perfect Subjunctive 11)	Present Sup-positional (Non-Perfect Sup-positional)	Past Sup-positional (Perfect Sup-positional)	Present Condi-tional (Non-Perfect Condi-tional)	Past Condi-tional (Perfect Condi-tional)
Be it so! Success attend you! Be happy! Long live our Motherland!	I insist that he be at home. It is desirable that she be ready by that time. We suggest that the tax be abolished.	I wish I were young. You look as if you knew everything. It is high time we went home. Oh, that the storm were over!	I wish 1 had been at home at that time. You looked as if you had known everything.	I insist he should be at home. It is necessary that they should do the work. She fears lest she should be late. Wherever you should go you have no right to do it.	At last they grew terrified that some evil should have befallen him. Maggie was frightened lest she should have been doing something wrong.	If I knew about her arrival I should meet her. If he were here he would help us.	If I had known about her arrival I should have met her. If he had been here he would have helped us.

The imperative mood

Imperative mood is mood that signals directive modality, especially in commands. Its use may be extended to signal permission. The imperative mood is used to demand or require that an action be performed. It is usually found only in the present tense, second person. To form the imperative mood, we use the base form of the verb (Heat the water to 65°C before adding the sample). An imperative verb is typically not inflected for most of the grammatical categories associated with verbs in a language, especially tense and person. It’s easy to see that the verbal imperative morphemically coincides with the subjunctive. The semantics of the imperative is similar to the subjunctive too: “Go there” or “You should go there”.

The imperative mood is very powerful. It is often appropriate to use the imperative mood when giving instructions. However, in other types of documents, such as letters, procedures, or recommendations, the bare imperative may be too strong. To tone down the effect of the imperative, you can use "politeness" words, such as please, or rephrase in the indicative with an auxiliary verb such as would.

e.g. Send the relevant documents to us as soon as possible. [This imperative might be received by some readers as being too direct, and thus, impolite.]

Would you please send the relevant documents to us as soon as possible? [This request is more polite than the previous one.]

The Category of Voice

The verbal category of voice shows the direction of the process regarding the participants of the situation. It is expressed by the opposition of the passive form of the verb (strong member) to the active form of the verb. The passive form expresses reception of the action by the subject of the syntactic construction. The category of voice (which is found both with finite and non-finite forms) is one of the most formal grammatical categories, because this category doesn’t reflect any fragment of reality – it’s a way of describing a certain fragment of reality. The category of voice deals with the participants of a happening (doer, action, object) and how they are represented in the sentence (subject, predicate, object). The Active Voice shows that the grammatical subject of the sentence or the subjectival is the doer of the action, denoted by the verb, the Passive Voice shows that the subject or the subjectival is an object of the action.

The frequency of occurrence of the English Passive Voice is very great, greater than in Russian. One of the reasons is that the number of verbs capable of forming the Passive Voice is greater in English than in Russian. In many languages passive voiced is expressed only by transitive verbs, in English – by any object verb.

The Russian sentences (types of sentences), which correspond to the English sentence with the Passive Voice:

1. Indefinite – personal: Ему сказали.

2. The Russian sentence with the analytical or the synthetic passive: Дом был построен. Дом строится.

3. Russian sentences with the Active Voice, with the subject-predicate inversion: Это сделал мой брат. (It was done by my brother).

4. Russian impersonal sentences: Крышу унесло ветром.

The idea of the Passive voice is expressed not only by means of “to be + P2”. In colloquial speech the role of the passive auxiliary can occasionally be performed by the verbs get, come, become, go + P2 and get + passive infinitive (ingressive meaning): He got involved; He got to be respected.

There are several verbs that can’t be used in passive: to rain, to snow, etc.

The Category of Time Correlation (Retrospective Coordination)

It is constituted by the opposition of the perfect forms of the verb to the non-perfect. The idea and the meaning of the perfect form have been the matter of close consideration for centuries: in many grammars it was treated as:

• a tense form;

• a relative (secondary) tense.

A.I. Smirnitsky was the first who identified the opposition perfect/non-perfect as a category and gave it its name. The functional contact of it was defined as priority expressed by the perfect forms in the present, past and future contrasted against the non-expression of priority by the non-perfect forms.

Now there are 3 main points of view on the perfect form:

• it’s a relative (secondary) tense;

• a category of time correlation;

• it is an aspect.

The category of retrospective coordination is an independent category which is semantically intermediate between aspective and temporal. It interpreted the action in the light of priority and aspective transmission. The perfect form presents an action as prior to some other action and is the strong member of the opposition. The non-perfect form denotes either a simultaneous or a posterior action or even priority (I remember seeing you). In this case we speak of transposition and neutralization: “I have always thought that he lives in Florida. I hear that’s a good place”.

This category is broadly represented in verbids. The perfect is used with verbids only when its categorial meaning is made prominent. Otherwise it can also be neutralized: She admitted stolen in the car. The infinitive is less liable to neutralization: He is said to have been ill two days ago. The perfect infinitive of notional verbs used with modal verbs may express several functions: priority and transmission; gradations of probability: He can’t have been here yesterday; certainty: He can’t have been here.