Lecture 9. Non – Finite Forms

The non-finite forms (the verbals) are the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle. They are not formally related to the doer of the action: the relationship is semantic, that’s why they have no categories which formally mark the relationship between the action and the doer of the action (no person and no number), no categories of predication (the tense, the mood) – they can’t be used as the predicate of the sentence, however the Infinitive and the Gerund can generate one-member sentences: No smoking! Why go there? To think of it!

The Infinitive has three grammatical categories: voice, time correlation, aspect. The Gerund and Participle I have two grammatical categories: voice and time correlation.

Non-finite forms combine nominal and verbal features – they are partly verbs and partly names (adjectives). This contiguity explains the attempts to refer the non-finite forms to certain classes according to their functioning. Thus in some grammars the Infinitive was referred to the noun, the Participle – to the adjective. As to the Gerund it was a controversial point as it exists only in English and in Spanish.

Verbids are intermediary in many of the lexical grammatical features between the verb and non-processual parts of speech. They render processes as peculiar kinds of substances and properties while the finite forms serve only one syntactic function (finite predicate). The non-finite serves various syntactic functions other than that of the finite predicate.

The opposition between the finite and non-finite forms of the verb creates special grammatical categories. The differential feature of the opposition is constituted by the expression of verbal time and mood. The verbid has no immediate means of expressing time, mood and categorial semantics and is therefore, the weak member of the opposition. This category can be called the category of finitude: “Have you ever had anything caught in your head – Have you ever had anything that was caught in your head.”

The verbids, unable to express the predicative meanings of time and mood, still express secondary or potential predication. The opposition of the finite verbs and the verbids is based on the expression of the functions of full predication and semi-predication: while the finite verbs express predication in complete form, the function of the verbids is to express semi-predication building up semi-predicative complexes. The English verbids include 4 forms: the infinitive, the gerund, the present and past participle.

The infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb and noun. Serving as the verbal name of the process, the English infinitive exists in two presentation forms: with and without to: to-infinitive (or marked) – bare infinitive (or unmarked).

The gerund is the non-finite form of the verb which like the infinitive combines the properties of a verb and those of the noun. The gerund also serves as the verbal name of the process but its substantive quality is more stronger pronounced than that of the infinitive. The gerund performs the functions of all the types of notional sentence parts.

The present participle is the non-finite form of the verb that combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective and adverb. It is homonymous with gerund and is distinguishing the same grammatical categories of retrospective coordinations and voice. The self-positional present participle performs the functions of the predicative the attribute, the adverbial modifier of various types.

The past participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying processual name. This form has no paradigm of its own. The past unlike the present participle has no distinct features, characteristic of the adverb. The main functions of the past participle in the sentence are those of the attribute and the predicative.

The infinitive – gerund correlation. Both forms are substance-processual but there is a clear-out difference between these forms. Gerund has a more substantive nature than the infinitive. It is also more abstract. Hence, these forms don’t repeat but complement each other: “Seeing and talking to people made him tired.” – “It made him tired to see and talk to so many people”. In the first example the person is talking about are general features of someone’s behavior. The second is one particular occasion.

The infinitive has more dynamic, more actional character, compared to corresponding gerundial expressions: “For them to have arrived so early such a surprise!” – “Their early arrival was so surprising.”

This triple correlation being of a systematic nature enables us to interpret it in terms of a special lexico-grammatical category of processual representation. The infinitive and its phrase is dynamic, the gerund and its phrase is semi-dynamic and the verbal noun and its phrase is static.

Another category within substantival verbids is the category of modal representation. This category marks the infinitive in contrasts to the gerund and is revealed in the infinitive having a modal force:

“This is a kind of piece desired by all.” – “A kind of piece that should be desired.” “Is there any hope for us to meet her in the university?” – “A hope that we may meet this person in the university.”

The gerund – participle correlation. At present time there is a discussion if the present participle and the gerund constitute different verbids or if they present one and the same form. These forms are outwardly the same when viewed in isolation. And it is not by chance that in the American linguistic tradition they are recognized as one integral verb – ing. In treating the –ing forms as constituting one integral verbal entity opposed on the one hand to the infinitive and on the other hand to the past participle, appeal is naturally made to the alternating views of the possessive and the common-objective nounal element in the role of the subject of the –ing form. They are mostly observed in various positions of the sentence:

I felt annoyed at his (gerund) him (participle) failing to see my point at once.

I saw him crossing the street / his coming. I insist on him being invited.

Exercises:

1. Identify the verbid in each phrase and label its function:

1.  Our coach gave hiring an assistant serious consideration.

2.  Federico gave up his favorite hobby, collecting baseball cards.

3.  Her neighbor's horse won first place by jumping successfully over all the rails.

4.  Catching lightning bugs can be fun in the summertime.

5.  His belief, getting to sleep early, helped him while he was in college.

6.  The politician objected to releasing his medical files.

7.  Our plan for winning next year is advertising on television.

8.  Juggling chainsaws can be extremely dangerous.

9.  The runner discussed winning the New York City Marathon.

10.  The admiral's objective was capturing the renegade raiding ship.

1.  Changing the lighting is necessary during theatrical performances.

2.  The owner did not permit smoking in the restaurant.

3.  A psychologist's best trait is listening to others.

4.  Her bad decision, skipping a day of school, cost her two days in suspension.

5.  Mom gave making mashed potatoes a try.

6.  Washington Roebling's greatest accomplishment was designing the Brooklyn Bridge.

7.  Many reasons for leaving the game caused the crowd to disperse.

8.  The landlord's responsibility, maintaining the apartment complex, became too much of a burden for him.

9.  Everyone in the band liked eating out.

10.  The umpire balked at taking a bribe.

Fill in the right form of the verb given. Use -ing or to + infinitive Начало формы

 2. Fill in the Infinitive or the –ing form:

1. Would you mind not (smoke) … here?

2. When I imagine (see) … him again I feel so happy.

3. They have grown (hate) … him.

4. The lungs function (supply) … the body with oxygen.

5. This exercise is brought to you by www.nonstopenglish.com

6. She would really love (start) … her own business.

7. She hurried (open) … the door.

8. John mentioned (see) … you the other day.

9. If you want to catch the 9.30 plane, that will mean (leave) …the house at 8.30 at the latest.

10. If you ever get (eat) … there you must try their pizza.

11. I used to hate jogging but I'm actually getting (like) …it.

12. I love (cook) … for my friends.

13. I like (lie) … in bed on Saturday mornings.

14. I did not mean (overhear) … their conversation.

15. His grandfather lived (be) … 93.

16. He imagined himself (sit) … in his favourite armchair back home.

17. He forbade me (tell) … anyone about our plans.

18. First they'll learn (use) … this machine.

19. Don't forget (reserve) … a seat for me.

20. Do you have (finish) … this today?

3. Use to- or bare infinitive. Explain the choice:

1. Make him ... speak louder. 2. Help me ... carry this bag. 3. My son asked me ... let him ... go to the theatre. 4. It cannot... be done today. 5. She asked me... read the letter carefully and ... write an answer. 6. The man told me not... walk on the grass. 7. Let me ... help yon with your work. 8. She ought... take care of her health. 9. We had better... stop to rest a little. 10. I don't know what... do. 11. He was seen ... leave the house. 11. We heard the siren ... sound and saw the ship... move. 12. I cannot... go there now, 1 have some work ... do. 13. You must make him ... practice an hour a day. 14. He is not sure that it can ... be done, but he is willing ... try. 15. 1 looked for the book everywhere but could not... find it. 16. He said that she might... come in the evening. 17. She was made ... repeat the song. 18. Would you rather ... learn shorthand than typewriting?

4. Translate into English using the construction for + noun / pronoun + infinitive:

1. Вам необходимо быть здесь завтра в 5 часов. 2. Ему легко это сделать. 3. Нам трудно сделать эту работу в такой короткий срок (in such a short time). 4.. Вашей сестре не­обходимо повидать его. 5. Текст был слишком трудный, чтобы он мог перевести его без словаря. 6. Сейчас слишком поздно, чтобы дети шли гулять.

5. Translate into English:

1. Говорят, что он в Москве. 2. Ожидают, что договор будет подписан на этой неделе. 3. Сообщают, что экспедиция выехала 15 мая. 4. Известно, что он придерживается другого мнения по этому вопросу. 5. Считают, что он один из лучших летчиков нашей страны. 6. Говорят, что этот дом был построен около двухсот лет тому назад. 6. Он, по-видимому, удовлетворен результатом своей работы. 7. Эта книга, по-видимому, очень интересная. 8. Он, кажется, знает этот предмет очень хорошо. 9. Он, по-видимому, очень много читал по этому вопросу. 10. Эта задача оказалась очень трудной.

Lecture 10. Word Groups

The word group has been one of the most important subjects for consideration and discussion for a very long time, since the time of prenormative and normative grammars. In old grammars they paid much more attention to word groups than to sentences. Still later the term “phrase” was introduced for the word group. Some linguists (H. Sweet) claim that this term is very wide (“phrase”) – it may be even a sentence, but nevertheless the term is still used.

The word group is an intermediate unit between a word and a sentence. On the one hand a word group is closer to a word in meaning, thus a word group is an extended word, but on the other hand, from the structural point of view a word group is closer to a sentence, because like a sentence a word group has a certain syntactic structure, word order and certain means of connection.

There are two basic approaches to the structure of the word group:

1. a word group is any combination of words;

2. a word group presupposes the presence of notional words.

One of the greatest differences between a word group and a sentence is that a classical word group is a non-predicative unit, because a word group doesn’t carry predication (only sentences can carry it). A word group is a static explanation; a sentence carries some dynamic force. Thus a word group has no intonation of its own.

Classifications of word groups:

1. full word groups: Phraseological units (set phrases, bound word groups)

2. the second classification is based on the way the headword is expressed. If we consider the relationship between the parts of a word group we’ll find that there may be at least 3 groups of relations:

• coordinate relations → coordinate word groups (groups of words, which have the same function (you and me), they are joined together either asyndetically or syndetically);

• subordinate relations → subordinate word groups (there is always the head and an adjunct (зависимое слово));

• predicative relations → predicative word groups (word groups the parts of which are joined by predicative relations (syntactical complexes)).

The subordinate word groups are further classified from the point of view of how their headword is expressed:

• noun word groups

• adjectival word groups

• adverbial word groups

• verbal word groups

The problem here is the word order (the arrangement of elements): if we consider the substantive word groups in Russian the usual extension goes to the right (the right hand distribution) in English – very often to the left (the left hand distribution): Get your eyes tested appeal to motorists.

A predicative word group (= complexes which are not to be found in Russian) is a special kind of word group with predicative relations between the nominal and the verbal parts (not the general predication of the sentence, not the primary predication, but the relations between the doer and the action).

The syntactical complex is a construction which is not to be found in slavonic languages and many others while in the English language it is used highly extensively. There are 5 main types of complexes:

1. the Complex Object;

2. the Complex Subject (is mostly used in newspaper style and business);

3. the For-phrase (the For-Complex, the Prepositional Complex) (not only the preposition “for” but also “to” and “on” can occur in this construction);

4. the Gerundial Complex;

5. the Absolute Nominative Participial Construction (is used in fiction and in technical description).

The complexes are further subdivided into bound (1, 2, 3, 4): they always function as an ingredient part of the sentence; and full (5): it is absolute, is not the I.C. of the sentence and is always an adverbial.

Since we consider only free word groups we should expect that since a free word group is considered full, it has no phraseological meaning, we may understand that the general meaning of the whole group is a sum of the parts which constitute it, but sometimes we can’t say so: very often the meaning of the whole phrase depends on the position of the elements in relation to each other: a house dog – a dog house

Notional phrases are grammatical unities made by a combination of two or more notional words. Notional phrase is the main unit of syntax (as well as the sentence). Words in an utterance form various syntagmatic connections with one another. Different combinations of nominal phrases denote complex phenomena and their properties and their interconnections.

Groupings of notional words fall into two opposite types:

1. Equipollent groupings, constituted by words related to one another on an equal rank. Connection in such groupings is realized either with the help of conjunctions (syndetically) or without them (asyndetically). The constituents of these combinations form logically consecutive connections that are classed as coordinative. Alongside these exist equipollent connections of a non-consecutive type when the elements are unequal as to the type of nomination. This type is classed as cumulative.

2. The dominational connection, where one of the constituents is principle and the other is subordinate. The principle element is called kernel or head word and the subordinate is the adjunct, expansion. Dominational connections can be consecutive like equipollent.

The predicative connection of words builds up the basic of the sentence. The completive way of connection of words is considered as subordinative on the ground that the outer syntactic status of the whole combination is determined by the kernel element: “That woman was astonishingly beautiful.”

All the completive connections are subdivided into objective and qualifying connections. The former reflect the relation of the object to the process and are characterized as very close: “He remembered the man”. The later connections are divided into attributive and adverbial: a boy of good character; to speak in a low voice.

Exercises:

1. Considering the relationship between the parts of a phrase name 3 groups of relations and illustrate them.

2. Analyze this part of prose from the point of view of the structure of its word groups:

As various aids to recovery were removed from him and he began to speak more, it was observed that his relationship to language was unusual. He mouthed. Not only did he clench his fists with the effort of speaking, he squinted. It seemed that a word was an object, a material object, round and smooth sometimes, a golf-ball of a thing that he could just about manage to get through his mouth, though it deformed his face in the passage. Some words were jagged and these became awful passages of pain and struggle that made the other children laugh. Patience and silence seemed the greater part of his nature. Bit by bit he learnt to control the anguish of speaking until the golf-balls and jagged stones, the toads and jewels passed through his mouth with not much more than the normal effort.

3. Translate the following phraseological units paying attention to the types of relations between the words in the English and Russian variants:

1. birds of a feather flock together;

2. much will have more;

3. money doesn’t grow on trees;

4. before one can say “Jack Robinson”;

5. put the cat among the pigeons;

6. lend your money and you lose your friend;

7. a stranger is a friend you have never met;

8. in fishing patience is the name of the game.

Lecture 11. Sentence

The sentence has always been considered the main and the highest unit of speech. The sentence is the only unit of speech capable of expressing a communication (суждение) – a more or less complete idea or thought.

Every sentence has several main features:

• a certain intonation structure (depends on the aim of the communication, its structure, grammatical type...);

• a certain grammatical structure (the division into members of the sentence and their arrangement);

• a certain communicative structure (the theme-rheme structure).

Every sentence is characterized by predication. Predication refers the utterance to reality. Formally predication is expressed through the categories of tense and mood: the temporal and the modal characteristics of the sentence are the most important ingredient parts of predication and the most important characteristic features of the sentence.

There are several classifications of sentences based on several different criteria:

1. The meaning of the sentence / the aim of the thought expressed / the communicative task. According to this criterion the sentences are subdivided into:

• declarative – the aim is just to give information

• interrogative – to seek information

• imperative (incentive – побудительные) – to urge somebody to do something

2. Each of the three communicative types can be exclamatory and non-exclamatory (expressively charged and not).

3. Another classification is based on the number of predicative groups / subject-predicate clusters. Here we find:

• composite – correlative (the more... the more), compound and complex sentences;

• simple. The connection between the parts may be syndetic or asyndetic.

4. One more classification is based on the use of secondary members: (extended ↔ non-(un)-extended).

5. According to the completeness of the structure we distinguish between complete and in-/non-complete – elliptical sentences.

6. The number of the main members, their use and the meaning of the possible doer of the action from the point of view of use of the primary is the basis of division of the sentences into:

• two-member sentences;

• one-member sentences.

  7. From the point of view of the nature of the subject or the nature of the possible doer sentences can be:

• personal (personal proper, indefinite-personal, general-personal);

• impersonal.

Sentence Structure

Since English is an analytical language the prevailing type of sentence is a two-member sentence, however in English there are also one-member sentences:

1. the nominating sentences:

• substantive sentences (the main part of it is a noun): Spring. Rain.

• Adjectival (the main member is the adjective): Fine. Splendid. Excellent.

2. imperative sentences (the main member of the sentence is a verb in the Imperative Mood): Do it!

3. Infinitive sentences:

• the infinitive without the particle “to” which builds a rhetorical question: Why no go there?

• the infinitive with “to”, which is expressively charged, in which the infinitive may be used in any forms, depending on the type of the action: To think of it! To have done such a thing!

4. gerundial sentences (the main member of the sentence is Gerund; such sentences are not very numerous. They are expressively charged and are usually in the negative forms): No talking! No smoking!

5. Sentence-words: Oh! Alas! (interjections); Yes! No! (particles); Of course! (modal words). Theoretically there are at least two approaches to such structures:

• such structures are complete one-member sentences;

• these are elliptical/incomplete sentences which are shortened transformations of a certain complete deep structure, thus: Do it now! < You do it now! Fine! < It’s fine!