15. Phraseology.

Phraseology is the branch of lexicology, specializing in word group by stability of structure and transferred meaning. The vocabulary of the language contains not only separate words, simple or compound and free word groups but also set phrases with the variable contexts. Opinions differ how this part of the vocabulary should be defined, classified, described and analyzed. There are several existing terms associatedwith this word group: set expressions, set phrases, fixed word groups, phraseological units or idioms as they are called by most western Scholars. The confusion in the terminology reflects insufficiency (недостаточный) of positive and reliable criteria by which phraseological units can be distinguished from free word group. It has been postulated by Smirnitskiy that vocabulary of the language consist of word and word groups similar to words in so far as they are not created in speech but introduced into the act of communicating readymade.Free word groups are so called because they are each time built up in new speech, whereas phraseological units are used with fixedconstant structure.

The origin of phraseological units.

According to the origin they divided into 2 groups: native and borrowed.

Native. The main sources of native are:

1. Terminological and professional expressions. FE: center of gravity, cut the painter (статьнезависимым).

2. British literature. FE: Шекспир: the green-eyed monster – jealousy. Диккенс: how goes the enemy – what is the time. Скотт: to catch smb red-handed.

3. British traditions and customs: baker’s dozen – 13. Goodwineneednobush – хороший товар сам себя хвалит.

4. Superstitions and legends: FE: black sheep. Halcyon days – very happy period in the past.

5. Historical facts and events, personalities: to do a Thatcher – to stay in power, to be on the horse – важничать.

6. Phenomena and facts of everyday life. FE: carry coals to new castle – to take smth to a place where there is plenty of it available. To get out of wood – to be saved from danger or difficulty.

2) the main sources of borrowed ph units:

1. hearlyscript (святописание): to confusion of Babylon

to cost the first stone- первым осудить кого либо

doubting Fomas- Фома неверующий

forbidden fruit- запретный плод

2) ancient legends and myths belonging to different religious and cultural traditions

Aladdin’s lamp

Procrustean bedden- необходимость подчиниться какой либо ситуации

3) Facts and events of the world history

To cross the rubikon

Brawn/black shirt- фашисты

4. variants of English language:

5) other languages/ classical and modern

Fair sex( French)- слабый пол

Vinjgradov’s classification of phraseological units.

Vinjgradov’s classification is based on semantic principles. He classified them ino 3 groups: 1) phraseological fusions (сращение) are completely non-motivated word groups ( to kick the backet - отбросить коньки, tit for tat- зуб за зуб, око за око, to make the bag – убить дичи больше чем лр. Участники охоты). The meaning of the components has no connection at keast synchronically with the meaning of the whole group. 2) phraseologocal unities (единства) are partially non-motivated as their meaning can usually be gathered from metaphoric meanings of the whole phraseological unit ( to wash one’s dirty linen in public - выносить сор из избы). 3) phraseologocal colloqations are motivated but they are made up of words possessive a certain degree of stability in such word combinations. The variations of the components are strictly limited. We can say “to bare the grudge “ - иметь зуб на кого-либо, or “to bare malice”(злобу), but not “to bare fancy (or like). We say “take a fancy “. The habitual colloqations tend to become a kind of clishes where the meaning of the components is dominated by the meaning of the whole group. Due to this phraseological colloqations are felt as possessing in certain degree of semantic separability.

Classifacition of Kunin.

1. Nominative phrasiological units are represented of word group including one meaningful word and coordinative phrases. (wear and tear of life – жизненное переутомление, wear and tear of time – разрушительная силавремени). This class also include word groups with predicative structure (as the crawl flies, ships that pass in the night)

Мои примеры: baker’s dozen –чертова дюжина, eat one’s word – брать назад свои слова, bed of roses – лёгкая жизнь.

2. Nominative-communicative phrasiological units include word group of type: to break the ice, the ice is broken. Nominative phrasiological units may be transferred into the sentences in passive voice. (To pull one’s leg – smb’s leg is pulled).

3. Neither nominative non communicative, there are interjections (Bless you, hear…hear). It denotes human feelings and emotions (Oh, my eye!=Oh, my God)

4. Communicative phrasiological units has the structure of the sentence. (proverb, sayings)

Amosova’s classification.

 Ph. Units in modern English are also approached from contextual point of view. This approach is suggested by professor Amosova. She defines phraseological units as units of fixed context and subdivides into 2 groups: 1) phrasems. Are two member word groups in which one of the members has specialized meaning, dependent on the second component “Small beer and small hours” 2) idioms. Are distinguished from phrasems by their idiomatisity of the whole word group “sofa potato”. Idioms are semantically and grammatically inseparable units. They may comprise unusual combination of words.