9. Reduplication]

Reduplication — repetition of roots or syllables in immediate succession — is one of the oldest types of word-formation (cf. in Russian uien-uien, jtcujiu-6buiu).

Though reduplication in English is widespread (boo-boo, bye-bye, gee- gee, hush-hush, night-night). The meaning of the words derived in such a way is diverse and unpredictable, as it is in many languages, but usually reduplication is used to denote quantity, intensity or priority.

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10. |JLexicalization of grammatical forms]

The transformation of a grammatical form of a word into an individual lexeme with its own lexical meaning (the colours 'the official flag of the country', customs 'a place where traveller's belongings are searched when leaving or entering a country', pictures 'the cinema', and arms 'weapon') is often referred to as lexicalization (cf. two other interpretations of the term 'lexicalization' discussed in Chapter 2).

|ll. Compression!

Compression is a way of forming holophrastic compound constructions by putting together a word combination or a sentence: man-at-arms, mother-of-pearl, free-for-all, stay-at-home, a take-it-away-it-stinks gesture.

12. Analogical word-formation!

The process of analogical word-formation takes place when a certain element of a morphological structure of a word, like a root, bound, unique or pseudo-morpheme, changes into a regular two-faceted morpheme: hamburger — cheeseburger — ftshburger; England — Disneyland — acqualand; kleptomania — nymphomania — acronymania; geography — biography —alibiography; Watergate — Irangate — zippergate — sexgate.

13. Reinterpretation of sound and morphemic structure of words]

Reinterpretation of sound and morphemic structure of words is the basis of folk etymology leading to the appearance of a new word with a different phonemic and morphemic structure (OE a nadder —» ModE an adder; OE a napron —» ModE an apron, OE brydguma 'the man of a bride' —> ModE bride-groom).

It is also the basis of new, usually nonce words, created for specific purposes to produce certain stylistic effects: penicillin — pennycillin; sunrise — son-rise; hide-and-seek — hide and sick; female —fee-male. An example of literary reinterpretation is presented in the poem Women by Bombaugh (see /Hyxos 1997: 145/):

When Eve brought woe to all mankind,

Old Adam called her wo-man;

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But when she woo'd with love so kind,

He then pronounced her woo-man. But now

with folly and with pride, Their

husbands' pockets trimming, The ladies

are so full of whims, The people call

them whim-men.

14. Word manufacturing]

Usually words are not created out of thin air. Even the non-patterned coinage in the 17^th century of the word gas by Jan Baptista van Helmont may be traced to Greek chaos. An example of the invention of a complete new morph is Kodak, which is the brainchild of the 20^th century inventor George Eastman, who felt that К is a commanding sound.

5.4. Derived words as items of the English lexicon

While the meaning of the inflected word is predictable and may be computed from the meaning of its components (he works, worked, is working), the meaning of a derived word is not so predictable in many cases. As mentioned above, a derived word includes a special component not observed in the meaning of its parts that makes it a special, separate lexical unit. Otherwise to create and interpret any derivative it would have been sufficient to provide in a dictionary just a list of roots, derivational affixes and rules of their composition.

In the lexical system derived words as well as simple words may be grouped into lexical-semantic groups and fields according to the concept they convey (see Chapter 7). But in addition to that, derived words may be classified into word families with their free root (roots) as their head. An example of such a word family is the noun sense which is the head for its derived words nonsense, sensation, sensational, senseless, senselessness, sensibility, sensitive, sensitiveness, sensory, sensual, sensible, and insensible.

Derivatives may also be grouped into derivational chains with the affix they are derived by as their head. For example, the derivational chain of adjectives with the suffix -ful, includes such words as beautiful, careful, dreadful, harmful, joyful, mournful, pitiful, peaceful, sinful, tearful, wonderful, and many others.

Both in the lexical system of the English language and in the mental lexicon of its speakers the connection between words with common bound roots having a vaguely defined meaning is very weak yet still exists. For example, the bound root —ject- [fr. L pp jectus fr jacere 'to throw'] is common for such loosely related words as inject, reject, project, trajectory, abject, adjective, subject, object, and interjection.

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So, due to clearly defined derivational relations in derived words, they have stronger connections in lexicon than non-derived though morphologically related words or simple monomorphic words without any derivatives.

The fact that the majority of names in any language are derived and that the language system preserves their derived character for a very long time, suggests that the human mind has a very efficient way of storing numerous lexicon, and the relations of derivation play an important role in this system. Due to its motivated character a derived word is easier to understand despite its idiomatic component, easier to remember due to its connections in form and meaning to other lexicalized units, and easier to retrieve from memory because the pathways to them are often activated by simple words - their naming sources.

It should also be mentioned that the meaning of a newly derived word is usually determined by the meanings of its constituents and the wide original context it is used in for the first time. But a lexicalized derived word enlisted in the lexicon does not need reconstruction of the whole context that the word was originally used in. A lexicalized derived word is memorized as a lexical unit having a definite meaning, form and usage sufficient for its proper reproduction and interpretation. The problem, however, remains: which information is sufficient for its adequate representation both in a dictionary and the mental lexicon.

Further reading:

КаращукП.М. Словообразование английского языка. - М.: Высшая школа, 1977.

Кубрякова Е. С. Что такое словообразование. - М: Наука, 1965.

Кубрякова КС. Основы морфологического анализа. - М.: Наука, 1974.

Мешков О.Д. Словообразование современного английского языка. - М.: Наука,

1976. Нухов С.Ж. Языковая игра в английском словообразовании: имя существительное.

Уфа: Башкирский педагогический институт, 1997. Полюжин М.М. Диахронно-семантический аспект префиксального

словообразования в английском языке. - М.: Институт языкознания РАН,

1992. Соболева П.М. Словообразовательные отношения по конверсии между глаголом и

отглагольным существительным в современном английском языке: Автореф.

дис. ... канд. филол. наук.— М., 1959. Харитончик З.А. Проблемы словообразования в современном английском языке.

Минск: МГПИИЯ, 1983. Харитончик З.А. Имена прилагательные в лексико-грамматической системе

современного английского языка. -Мшск: Вышэйшая школа, 1986. Царев П.В. Сложные слова в английском языке. (Учебное пособие). - М.: Изд-во

Московского. Университета, 1980.

Bauer, L. English Word-formation. - Cambridge: CUP, 1983. Marchand, H. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-formation. -

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Chapter 6. ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY: NAMING BY WORD GROUPS

"In fact, the theory of fixed expressions must draw heavily on the theories of phonology, syntax, and semantics in just the way lexical theory does, and it must account for a body of material of roughly the same size as the word lexicon ".

"... lexical items larger than words have always created a problem ".

— Ray Jackendoff. The Architecture of the Language Faculty, 1997:157,160.

Phraseology: general characteristics. Lexical and grammatical valence of words. Structure and meaning of word groups. Free word groups vs. collocation, cliches, set expressions, idioms, phraseological units. Classification of phraseological units.

l. Phraseology: general characteristic

So far we have discussed the ways of naming a concept by a borrowed word, by a secondary use of the actual word or by a newly derived word. But a concept may also be lexicalized by combinations of words arranged into phrases and sentences according to certain laws.

Traditionally syntax is concerned with studying laws governing the so-called free phrase and sentence structures (a nice girl; I love you). But lexicology examines special aspects of the ways the words combine into phrases. Its interest is based, first of all, on certain preferences and restrictions that words in every language undergo in their general ability to form grammatically and logically acceptable phrases.

For example, the phrase to drink tea is acceptable in English though it is preferable to combine the noun tea with the verb to have and to say to have tea. Or, there is mutual expectancy between the English verb to shrug and the noun shoulders, and this restriction is of great interest to lexicology and lexicography. The adjective blond 'light-coloured (usu. yellowish)', according to the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, is mostly collocated with the noun 'hair' like blond hair. Though another dictionary may point to a wider use of this adjective, its ability to apply to the word skin to denote 'of a pale white or rosy white colour', and even to some other words like in a table of blond walnut to denote 'made light-coloured by bleaching', the word blond still has severe restrictions on its application and a word combination such as *a blond sweater is hardly possible.

The restrictions and preferences of words in their combining activity are different in different languages. They should be learned and memorized, and thus many word combinations become complex units of the lexicon.

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Besides preferences and restrictions, lexicology is interested in one more aspect of word combinations - their meaning. Some of the phrases and even sentences in a language, just as derived and compound words, may mean more than their constituents suggest. This additional meaning is a part of their systemic meaning rather than pragmatics, it does not derive from a new situation in which the words are used. Thus, Hobson's choice means 'no choice at all', in cold blood means 'deliberately, without passion', and an old bird is not to be caught with chaff stands for 'experienced people are not easily fooled or deceived'. The additional semantic component that can hardly be deduced from the meanings of constituent words is called idiomatic meaning. It turns word combinations and sentences into ready-made units that become a part of the lexicon. People should learn them specially in order to understand and use them correctly.

Regularly reproduced and having specific restrictions, structure and meaning, such word combinations should definitely be memorized, lexicalized and enter our lexicon. They should be the subject of lexicology alongside its other lexical units, like derivational affixes, lexemes and regularly used senses of lexemes.

These complex ready-made and often idiomatic units, for which there is no unanimously accepted term, are the objects of a special branch of lexicology - phraseology. Some scholars regard phraseology even as a special branch of linguistics due to its very specific object of investigation, implied complex methods of analysis and widespread research activity.

The scope of questions raised and discussed by phraseology is diverse. They range from classification of phraseological units to investigating their specific aspects including stylistic value, grammatical, semantic and etymological characteristics, pragmatics, contrastive analysis and problems of translation, their role in a language and their representation in the mind.

It should be underlined that the achievements of Soviet phraseology led by V.V. Vinogradov, A.V. Kunin, A.I. Smirnitsky, N.N. Amosova, A.S. Akhmanova and nowadays by V.N. Telia, N.L. Shadrin and others are widely recognized in the scientific world. "'Classical' Russian theory with its later extensions and modifications is probably the most pervasive influence at work in current phraseological studies and is unrivalled in its application to the design and compilation of dictionaries" /Cowie 1998:27.

Nowadays many linguists realize that phraseological units are not a peripheral phenomenon in lexicon bordering on syntax. Even if they are from some points of view, this type of word combinations makes up a large part of our language knowledge. They tell us a lot about the core of a language. (I.MePchuk has even claimed that "people do not speak in words, they speak in phrasemes" /MePchuk 1995:168A) Phraseological units are specific lexical units that are framed into syntax. They are also a place where phonetics, semantics, morphology, syntax and pragmatics meet. As a consequence, phraseology is turning into an important interdisciplinary research for scholars of different backgrounds.

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Theoretical linguists are interested in knowing which principles relate phraseological units to syntactic configurations. Computational linguists work on processing systems that can easily recognize phraseological units in text. Psychologists are interested in production and comprehension of these conventionalized complex units and in speech errors that people make producing and processing them.

In this chapter we shall limit ourselves to traditional problems of phraseology, the choice of units for inclusion into phrasecon and their most well known classifications.

It is necessary to describe the features that both types of word groups have in common before we start discussing criteria used to differentiate between ready-made lexicalized word combinations, investigated by phraseology, and free non-lexicalized word groups, which remain the object of syntax. All words in all types of word groups have certain lexical and grammatical restrictions and a certain grammatical structure characteristic of a language.