11.Synchronic and diachronic approaches to polysemy.

From diachronical point of view polysemy is understood as the development of or change in the semantic structure of the word. Words retain their primary meaning and require new ones. When we describe the meaning of a word as «secondary» we imply that it could not have appeared before the primary meaning was in existence. When we refer the meaning as «derived» we imply not only that, but also that it is dependent on the primary meaning and somehow subordinate to it. The main source of polysemy is the change in the semantic structure of the word. But polysemy is also arises from homonymy. When the 2 words become identical in sound-form ,the meanings of 2 words are felt as making up one semantic structure. Some of the old meanings may become obsolete or even disappear , but the number of meanings increase.2 classifications:I)words are divided into origina,initial1)Etymological-the earniest known meaning and2)derived (the present day mean.) II)1)leaving meaning 2)obsolete(archaic) the quick and the dead.Synchronic approach .It’s the coexistence of various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the E Lang.The basic meaning occurs in various and widely different context ,minor meanings are observed only in certain context.Sometimes 2 mean-s may be felt as central. A more objective criterion of the comparative value of individual meanings seems to be frequency of their occurrence in speech.The semantic structure of the word is never static.It sometimes happens that the central meaning of polysemantic words becomes secondary.Ex Revolution.(вращение,оборот-переворот в пром-1полит переворот)The following classification can be offered .I)-based on the principal and figurativeness 1-direct 2-transferred Ex Sheep(shy person),to strike(hit,make impres) II)-on the volume and context of the notion 1)narrow 2)wide Ex) lord,The Lord(бог) III)on the frequency of usage 1)central 2)marginal Ex train(шлейф)IV)principal and degree of abstraction 1concrete and 2abstract Ex acquaintance(знак-ый(во))V) emotional coloring of meaning 1)neutral 2)colored Ex elephant(awkward person) VI)principles of distribution 1)free 2)bound Ex quick(быстр,жив)

13.Diachronic and synchronic approaches to homonymy

Synchronic The main question here is the criteria distinguishing homonymy from polysemy,the formulation of rules for recognizing different meanings of the same homonym in terms of distribution, and the description of difference between patterned and non-patterned It is necessary to emphasize that all these problems are connected with difficulties created by homonymy in understanding the message by the reader or listener , not with formulating one’s thoughts ; they exist for the speaker though in so far as he must construct his speech in a way that would prevent all possible misunderstanding .The problem of establishing the criterion for the distinction between different words identical in sound form and different meanings of the same word becomes hard to solve. There exists no universal criterion for the distinction between polysemy and homonymy. Arnold suggests the so-called transformation analysis .1)a child voice is heard – sound uttered in speaking2)His voice was annoyingly well -bread.- mode of uttering sounds in speaking 3)The voice –voiceless distinction …sets up some English consonant in opposed pairs – the vibration of the vocal chords in sound uttered 4)In the voice contrast of active and passive – here voice is the form of the verb that expresses the relation of the subject to the action. English lexicographers think it quiet possible for one and the same word to function as different parts of speech. Ex I think that this «that» is a conjunction but that that «that» that that man used was a pronoun.

Distinction between polysemy and homonymy is relevant and important 4 lexicography it is not relevant for the practice of human or machine translation. In non-patterned homonymy every unit is to be learned separately both from the lexical and grammatical points of view. In patterned homonymy when one knows the lexical meaning of a given word in one part of speech,one can accurately predict the meaning when the same sound complex occurs in some other parts of speech. Diachronic approach The course of homonymy in English is in its monosyllabical character .The monosyllabic words are the most frequent in any language and they are highly polysemantic. In the course of time the polysemantic words develop meanings which lose their connection with the rest of the structure and begin to exist structure .How do homonyms appear 1)as a result of disintegration of polysemantic words is lost the word brakes into a number of homonyms. But such homonyms can be etymological connected Ex box (коробка,положить в коробку,вечнозеленый куст,надрать уши,боксы) It’s difficult to find exact criteria by which we can show how homonyms developed from polysemy. The only criteria here is etymological.2)they appear as a result of phonemic coincidence in O.E.The pronunciation of the word coincided as a result of phonetic change. Ex laze – eye. Here the coincidence is accidental .Homonyms of this kind are universal recognized .3)appear as a result of borrowings EX ball –bal, rain-reign.4)as a result of conversion Ex can-can(v).

14.Homonyms: definition and classification. Homonyms are words which are identical in sound form and spelling, but different in their meanings,distribution and origin.It comes from greek homos-similar,onoma-name.The mean-s have no inner connaction.Eng.voc. is rich inhomonyms..Their identical forms are mostly accidental.They are subdivided into homonyms proper,homophones,homographs .But homonyms may belong both to the same and to different categories of parts of speech.Homonyms proper are words identical in pronunciation and spelling.The important point is that homonyms are distinct words:not different meanings within one word.Homophones are words of the same sound but of different spelling and meaning : bye-by, write-right.Homographs are words different in sound and in meaning but accidentally identical in spelling : lead,lead/-led/, wind,wind/-waind/.Accordingly,Pr.A.I Smirnitsky classified homonyms into 2 large classes. I)full II)partial Full lexical homonyms are words which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm.Ex Match,match.still.II) Partial hom-s may have dif.paradigms:seal(запечатывать)as a rule they belong to dif parts of speech?but :ti lie. Partial hom-s may coincide either in a)pronunciation and this is called homophoned:night-knight?deer-dear.b) in spelling.homoghraphs. row,lead,tear. By the type of meaning homonyms may be classified into 1)lexical2)lexical and grammatical2)grammatical a)They belong to one and the same part of speech but they have unrelated lexical meanings.EX band,bend They may coincide either with all their grammatical forms,complete lexical homonyms ,non complete lexical homonyms.b)they belong to different parts of speech .They differ in grammatical and lexical meaning EX to find –found c) They differ in grammatical meaning but belong to different parts of speech EX for ,since