33)The methodological significance of the Law of Negation.

This law was created to account for the tendency in nature to constantly increase the numerical quantity of all things. Marx and Engels decided that each entity tends to negate itself in order to reproduce itself in higher quantity. Engels often cited the case of the barley seed which, in its natural state, germinates and out of its own death or negation produces a plant. The plant in turn grows to maturity and is itself negated after bearing many barley seeds. Thus, all nature is constantly expanding through dying. The elements of opposition which produce conflict in each thing and give it motion also tend to negate the thing itself; but out of this dynamic process of dying the energy is released to expand and produce many more entities of the same kind

34)The category of Being in philosophy. The forms of Being.

In metaphysics (in particular, ontology), the different kinds or ways of being are called categories of being or simply categories. To investigate the categories of being is to determine the most fundamental and the broadest classes of entities. A distinction between such categories, in making the categories or applying them, is called an ontological distinction.

Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are. In no particular order, here are at least some items that have been regarded as categories of being by someone or other:^[who?]

[Physical objects

Physical objects are beings; certainly they are said to be in the simple sense that they exist all around us. So a house is a being, a person's body is a being, a tree is a being, a cloud is a being, and so on.

[Minds

Minds -- those "parts" of us that think and perceive—are considered beings by some philosophers. Each of us, according to common sense anyway, "has" a mind.

[Classes

We can talk about all human beings, and the planets, and all engines as belonging to classes.

[Properties

The redness of a red apple, or more to the point, the redness all red things share, is a property. One could also call it an attribute of the apple.

Relations

An apple sitting on a table is in a relation to the table it sits on. So we can say that there is a relation between the apple and the table: namely, the relation of sitting-on

Space and Time

Space and time are what physical objects are extended into.

]Propositions

Propositions are units of meaning. They should not be confused with declarative sentences, which are just sets of words in languages that refer to propositions) depending on the person uttering it.

Events

Events are that which can be said to occur.

.Many philosophers have attempted to reduce the number of distinct ontological categories. For instance, David Hume famously regarded Space and Time as nothing more than psychological facts about human beings, which would effectively reduce Space and Time to ideas, which are properties of humans (substances). Nominalists and realists argue over the existence of properties and relations. Finally, events and propositions have been argued to be reducible to sets (classes) of substances and other such categories.

ВЗЯТО С ЛЕКЦЫИ

There are different forms of being. Among them we can note as following:

Form’s of Being:

1. Spiritual being

1. objective spiritual being

2. individualized spiritual being

2. Social being

   1. social being

   2. man’s being in society

3. man’s being

1. man’s being proper

2. man’s being in the world of things

1. natural being

1. secondary nature being

2. primary nature being

Дополнительно можно розписать:

To begin with we shall regard the concept of outer world being. Here we can speak of the primary nature and the “second nature”. The primary nature is objective that is it exists independently of man and his spirit, which appeared later then nature. Nature is also the sphere of man’s life and his activity, which would be impossible without it. All things of the “second nature” are dependent on nature, they are created on its base and they are included into the concept of outer world.

The “second nature” is made by people, as a result of their knowledge and practical activity, it is directed to satisfaction of man’s needs. The “second nature” is a peculiar type of reality which includes both sides - natural and social, historical, that is civilized being. The primary nature and the “second nature” are inseparable they add each other and represent the integral world of man.

Another type of being is man’s being in the world. Actually it is unique. Man, being a part of nature, is bodily similar to other natural things. Man is mortal, he is subordinated to the natural laws. But at the same time man is simultaneously a leaving being who is involved in the evolutionary process of nature, he is the result of anthroposociogenesis.

Philosophy is constantly searching for the integral unity of man’s body and spirit. Man represents himself by both primary nature and the “second nature”. His emotions, thoughts are an inseparable part of his life. To compare with animals man is a practically acting, social being, who makes things to satisfy his needs. People communicate by using language. Their soul and spirit are formed just at the base of communication and practical activity.

The peculiarity of human being is characterized by the unit of three dimensions of being. Each man is a sensible and reasonable being (body); he is an individual being of Homo Sapiens Species, the result of biological evolution; he is a social-historical being having his personality. All this determines the specific character of Human being, his objectivity. Every individual represents himself as a reality, existing together with his consciousness. People do not simply exist in the world. They a great deal influence both the world and themselves, they philosophize on the problem of being, worry for its future, for their own role in the system of being, they try to be worth of it.

The last but not the least form of being is spiritual being. Spiritual represents all forms of consciousness including knowledge, norms and principles of communication and behavior (law, moral, artistic activity etc).

Philosophy is interested in the way of existence of consciousness, its development. The problem of self-consciousness is also very important as it inseparably linked with human Ego.

Being of individual both conscious, unconscious and subconscious is, though relatively independent, included into the process of evolution of being as a whole. Internal and external spiritual being merging they can penetrate and transform into each other and they can produce objective spiritual. There are such materialized forms of spiritual, born in human culture, and then belonging to extra individualized forms of being.