26. Urban culture: 1812-1918

In 1812 the very rapid growth of urban population. 4 causes: rapid industrialization; the relentless construction of roads and railways making easier the movement of goods and people, a steady stream of immigrants fleeing war, persecution and poverty in their countries of origin and concentrating in America's major ports of entry, and farm workers displaced by machinery, making their way to a supposed brighter future in the cities. The ratio of urban dwellers in the much expanded national population rose from 8% to 25. By the end of the 19th century, the United States was dotted with large and small cities. From the 1820s to the 1880s, changes occurred so rapidly that city governments struggled to cope with them. By 1830, New York had gained a reputation as a place of great motion and constant activity. At the same time, NY experienced archaic sanitation, contaminated water, severe poverty, insufficient housing and schools. The immigrants came from practically every country and area of the world. They crowded into the cities, often living together in distinct communities, or ethnic neighborhoods demarcated by language, religious and cultural differences. Many of these enclaves still exist today. Most city governments were characterized by a spirit of laissez-faire. City government leaders saw their role as one of maintaining civil order, not as engaging in city planning. Between 1880 and 1920, many urban problems found at least temporary solutions. Movement to bring about social, economic and political reform arose in all the large cities. Collectively, these reform activities came to be known as the Progressive Movement. Public health programs were started to offer help to the poor. Public school systems were enlarged and strict qualification standards for teachers were set. Housing quality laws were passed. Agencies were created to teach language and job skills to millions of immigrants. In addition, there were many technical innovations: the electric light and the electrification of machinery, water and sewage systems, the trolley car and subway, and the elevator and skyscraper.

27. Urban culture. Early years: 1625-1812

The original North American colonies were regarded by the mother countries of Britain, Holland and France primarily as sources of raw material from field, forest, ocean and mine, and as potential markets for finished goods manufactured in Europe. While this approach required rural and wilderness settlement, it was necessary, at the same time, to establish small towns in the colonies as administrative centers to control the emerging trans-Atlantic trade. These towns were gathering places for artisans and shopkeepers who served the agricultural hinterlands. In the large and frightening wilderness, the towns provided security and also served as social centers. Eventually, with increasing numbers of European settlers arriving in the New World, coastal cities—the largest of which were Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Charleston, South Carolina—came into being, and their economic and social influence stretched into extensive rural backlands. At the same time, as port cities, they rapidly grew to be flourishing centers of international commerce, trading with Europe and the Caribbean. By 1660, Boston contained about 3,000 people. New York (then called New Amsterdam) was founded in 1625 by the Dutch West India Company, which exported furs, timber and wheat. Captured by the British in 1664, New Amsterdam was renamed New York. Because of its favorable geography, it soon became an important trading port. By 1775, its population was about 25,000. William Penn, who planned the city of Philadelphia, believed that a well-ordered city was necessary to economic growth and moral health. He wanted to build a "green country town". Inside the town were markets, residential housing, small factories, churches, public buildings, recreational areas and parks. Most American towns of this early period featured open spaces alternating with built-up areas. Much free land was available, and, as fewer than 10 percent of the people lived in the towns, few opposed their growth. By the middle of the 18th century, however, many people opposed this growth because the towns had begun to seem too large and crowded. By 1750, the larger cities were dominated by a wide range of commercial and craft activities. A corresponding range of social groups developed: from an economically and socially dominant merchant and administrative class to a middle class of artisans, shopkeepers, farmers and smaller traders. On the edge of society, groups of the poor and dispossessed scrambled for an economic foothold, and were sometimes dependent upon charity. Culturally, the colonies were outposts of Britain. The colonial cities were visited by touring actors and musicians and enriched by the development of schools, libraries and lecture halls. All of this increased the differences between city and country life and contributed to the importance of the American city as an initiator of social change. In terms of administration, the development of towns created a dense web of social, economic and governmental structures and regulations. Councilmen were first elected to govern New York City in 1684. In contrast, the city of Charles Town (now called Charleston), in South Carolina, had no local representatives, but was governed by the State Assembly. The War of Independence (1775-1783) was largely brought about by the grievances of city dwellers. Strict limitations imposed by the British on manufacture and trade, and the British Parliament's repeated levying of taxes without prior consultation with the colonists were widely perceived as unjust and punitive measures. Furthermore, one hundred years of inter-city trade had forged a sense of nationhood. The famous Boston Tea Party, during which colonists destroyed tea imported on British ships rather than pay taxes on it, expressed the colonists' frustration and their growing sense of national unity. The war secured political independence for the United States, but economically, the new nation was still dependent upon the trading patterns that had developed over a century. The country supplied raw material and imported finished goods. This situation lasted until the War of 1812 (with England), during which great suffering occurred as a result of the British blockade of American ports. Even those Americans who had earlier resisted the development of a larger manufacturing sector and the growth of cities now changed their minds.

28. Science and technology. From its emergence as an independent nation, the US has encouraged science and invention. It has done this by promoting a free flow of ideas, by encouraging the growth of "useful knowledge," and by welcoming creative people from all over the world. The bulk of Research and Development funding comes from the private sector, rather than from taxes. The US Constitution itself reflects the desire to encourage scientific creativity. This clause ensured that inventions and other creative works could not be copied or used without the creator's receiving some kind of compensation.Early North Am science B.Franklin conducted experiments that deepened human understanding of electricity.Franklin also invented bifocal eyeglasses.Thomas Jefferson introduced various types of rice,olive trees,grasses into the New World.Rittenhouse built telescopes and navigation instruments for the US' military services, also he designed road and canal systems.Benjamin Rush promoted hygiene and public health practices.Charles Willson Peale created the first major museum in the US.Science immigration.A notable early immigrant was the British chemist Joseph Priestley was the 1of thousands of talented scientists.Alexander Bell,from Scotland,developed the telephone.Charles Steinmetz,from Germany,developed new alternating-current electrical systems,Vladimir Zworykin,from Russia invented a television camera.The Serb Nikola Tesla invented the brushless electrical motor based on rotating magnetic fields.Enrico Fermi, came from Italy and produced the world's first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.Since 1950, Americans have won approximately half of the Nobel Prizes awarded in the sciences.Am applied science.During the 19th the US excelled in using theory to solve problems:applied science.The great Am inventors include Robert Fulton(the steamboat);Samuel Morse(the telegraph);Eli Whitney(the cotton gin);Cyrus McCormick(the reaper);and Thomas Alva Edison.In the 1890s the Wright brothers built and flew several gliders.John Bardeen, William Shockley,and Walter Brattain drew upon highly sophisticated principles of quantum physics to invent the transistor,a small substitute for the bulky vacuum tube.As a result, book-sized computers of today can outperform room-sized computers of the 1960s.The Atomic Age and "Big Science".One of the most spectacular accomplishments of US technology has been the harnessing of nuclear energy.During 1940s,a number of the most prominent European scientists immigrated to the US: Hans Bethe, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Leó Szilárd, Edward Teller, Felix Bloch, Emilio Segrè, and Eugene Wigner.The first US commercial nuclear power plant started operation in Illinois.American scientists have been experimenting with solar power.Although solar power generation is still not economical in much of the United States, recent developments might make it more affordable.Telecom and technology For the past 80 years,US has been integral in fundamental advances in telecommunications and technology.For example,the Am technological revolution with a series of inventions including the light emitted diode (LED), the transistor, the C programming language, and the UNIX.The birth to the personal computer industry, while NASA funded the development of the Internet.The "Space Age"American Robert Goddard was one of the first scientists to experiment with rocket propulsion systems.Goddard's rockets achieved modest altitudes of nearly two kilometers.Expendable rockets provided the means for launching artificial satellites & manned spacecraft.In 1958 US launched Explorer I.Communications satellites transmit computer data, telephone calls, and radio and television broadcasts.Weather satellites furnish the data necessary to provide early warnings of severe storms.Medicine and health care.Numerous medical achievements have been made:mortality from heart disease dropped,the death rate for strokes decreased, the cancer death rate fell, children cancer is cured.Molecular genetics and genomics research have revolutionized biomedical science, trials of gene therapy in humans and are now able to locate, identify, and describe the function of many genes in the human genome