13. Colonial era

Most American colonists worked on small farms. In the southern colonies of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina, landowners carved large tobacco and rice plantations out of fertile river basins. These were worked by Africans under the system of slavery, or by free Englishmen who contracted to work without pay for several years in return for their passage to America.

By 1770 Philadelphia, with 28,000 inhabitants, was the largest city, followed by New York, Boston and Charleston, South Carolina. By 1733, English settlers had occupied 13 colonies along the Atlantic coast. The French controlled Canada and Louisiana, which included the entire Mississippi watershed. By 1756, England and France were fighting the Seven Years' War. William Pitt, the British prime minister, won an empire. British forces captured the Canadian strong points of Louisburg, Quebec and Montreal. The Peace of Paris, signed in 1763, gave Britain title to Canada and all of North America east of the Mississippi River. Britain's victory led directly to a conflict with its American colonies. The British government began punishing smugglers and charged new taxes on sugar, coffee, textiles and other imported goods. Tensions eased when Lord North, the new British chancellor of the exchequer, removed all the new taxes except that on tea. In 1773, a group of patriots responded to the tea tax by staging the "Boston Tea Party": they boarded British merchant ships and tossed 342 crates of tea into Boston harbor. Parliament then passed the "Intolerable Acts": more British soldiers were sent to the port of Boston, which was now closed to shipping. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress, a meeting of colonial leaders met in Philadelphia. Colonists began to collect and store weapons and ammunition. Revolution On April 19, 1775, 700 British soldiers marched from Boston to forestall a rebellion of the colonists by capturing a colonial arms depot in the nearby town of Concord. At the village of Lexington the American War of Independence began. By June, 10,000 American soldiers had besieged Boston, and the British were forced to evacuate the city in March 1776. At first, the war went badly for the Americans. The British captured New York City in September 1776, and Philadelphia was captured a year later. The tide turned in October 1777, when a British army under General John Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga, in northern New York. Then a Franco-American alliance was signed in February 1778. After 1778, the fighting shifted largely to the south. In 1781, 8,000 British troops under General George Cornwallis were surrounded at Yorktown, Virginia. Cornwallis surrendered, and soon afterward the British government asked for peace. The Treaty of Paris, signed in September 1783, recognized the independence of the United States. Devising a constitution The 13 colonies were now "free and independent states"—but not yet one united nation. In May 1787, a convention met in Philadelphia with instructions to revise the Articles of Confederation. The delegates— among whom were George Washington, Benjamin Franklin and James Madison—went beyond their mandate and drafted a new and more workable Constitution. It established a stronger federal government empowered to collect taxes, conduct diplomacy, maintain armed forces, and regulate foreign trade and commerce among the states. Most importantly, it established the principle of a "balance of power" to be maintained among the three branches of government—the executive, the legislative and the judicial. The Constitution was accepted in 1788, but only after much bitter debate. Many Americans feared that a powerful central government would trample on the liberties of the people, and in 1791, 10 amendments—the Bill of Rights— were added to the Constitution. This document guaranteed freedom of religion, a free press, free speech, the right of citizens to bear arms, protection against illegal house searches, the right to a fair trial by jury and protection against "cruel and unusual punishments." New nation As the first president of the United States, George Washington governed in a Federalist style. When Pennsylvania farmers refused to pay a federal liquor tax, Washington mobilized an army of 15,000 men to put down the "Whiskey Rebellion." In 1797, Washington was succeeded by another Federalist, John Adams, who became involved in an undeclared naval war with France. In an atmosphere of war hysteria, the Federalist-controlled Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. The repression which occurred under the Alien and Sedition Acts ended in 1801, when Thomas Jefferson was elected president. Although he wanted to limit the power of the president, political realities forced Jefferson to exercise that power vigorously. In 1803, he bought the huge Louisiana territory from France for $15 million: Now the United States would extend as far west as the Rocky Mountains. In 1812 President James Madison went to war with Britain. During the War of 1812, American warships had some impressive victories, but the vastly superior British Navy blockaded American ports. British forces captured and burned Washington, the nation's new capital city. Britain and the United States agreed on a compromise peace in December 1814; neither side won any concessions from the other. After the war, the United States enjoyed a period of rapid economic expansion. The Industrial Revolution had reached America: there were textile mills in New England; iron foundries in Pennsylvania. By the 1850s, factories were producing rubber goods, sewing machines, shoes, clothing, farm implements, guns and clocks. The frontier of settlement was pushed west to the Mississippi River and beyond. In 1828, Andrew Jackson became the first man born into a poor family and born in the West to be elected president.

14. Ethnic groups and minoritiesUS is a diverse country racially and ethnically.White Amns are a majority and are spread throughout the country; racial and ethnic minorities, composing one third of the population, are concentrated in coastal and metropolitan areas.Hispanic or Latino American is a racially diverse ethnic group, and constitutes the nation's largest ethnic minority.The Black Am population is concentrated in the S,and also spread throughout parts of the Northeast and Midwest.Black Ams make up the largest racial minority in the US(74%).As with all the racial groups, part of the White Ampopulation is Hispanic or Latino.White Am attain their highest concentration in the Midwest.Asian Am are concentrated in the W states.Half of the Native Am population resides in the West.More than three quarters of the Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander population is found in the W,mostly in Hawaii and California.The Two or more races population resides mostly in the W and S. Hispanics and Latinos are most concentrated in the W.White Ams trace their ancestry to the original peoples of Europe, N Africa, and the Middle East. Most White Amns are European Amn, descendants of immigrants who arrived since the establishment of the first colonies. The most frequently stated white ancestriesare: German, Irish, English, "American", WhiteHispanic, Italian, Polish, French, Scottish, Dutch, Norwegian, ScotsIrish, Swedish, Russian, FrenchCanadian, Dutch/Belgian, Lithuanian, Latvian, former Yugoslavs, Greek, Hungarian, Portuguese, Czech, Slovak, Australian, New Zealander and Spanish. Black AmsAbout 12% of the American people are Black/African Am, most of whom are primarily descendants of Africans who lived through the Slavery era in the U.S. The black population has been bolstered by immigration from the Caribbean(Jamaica and Haiti).Historically, any person with any sub-Saharan African ancestry were designated and classified as "black",according to the now-defunct "one drop theory," by which any black/African ancestry made the person "black" in legal sense.Asian Ams in Hawaii,California and in large numbers in New York City, Chicago, Boston, Houston, and other urban centers. The largest groups are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Philippines, China, Pakistan, India, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, South Korea and Japan. Two or more races They can be any combination of races and ethnicities. Miscegenation or interracial marriage, most notably between whites and blacks, was deemed illegal in most states in the 18^th-20th centuries.Demographers state that the Am people are mostly multi-ethnic descendants of various immigrant nationalities culturally distinct until assimilation and integration took place in the mid 20th century. Native Ams Indigenous peoples of the Ams, such as Amn Indians and Inuit, made up 0.8% of the population.An additional 1.9 million declared part-Native Amn or Amn Indian ancestry.The legal and official designation of who is Native Amn by descent aroused controversy by demographers, tribal nations and government officials for many decades.Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders Most Native Hawaiians on the island chain of Hawaii are said to be highly mixed with Asian, European and other ancestries. Native Hawiians are receiving ancestral land reparations.Throughout Hawaii, the preservation and universal adaptation of Native Hawaiian customs, Hawaiian language, cultural schools solely for legally Native Hawaiian students, and historical awareness has gained momentum for Native Hawaiians.Hispanic and Latino Ams Ams of Latin Amn origin do not form a race but an "ethnicity" known as"Hispanic or Latino".The H. or L. category is based on national origin, language and culture, not race.H. and L. Ams may be of any race. Their racial breakdown is:White; "Some other race,Two or more races,Black/ African Amn;Amn Indian or Alaska Native;Asian;Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander.The spectacular growth of the Hispanic population through immigration and higher birth rates are noted as a partial factor for the US’ population gains in the last quarter-century.

16. American Civil War The Am.Civil War (1861–1865) was a civil war between the United States of America (the "Union") and eleven Southern slave states that declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America (the Confederacy). The Union included all of the free states and the five slaveholding border states and was led by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party. The Confederacy was led by Jefferson Davis. In 1859 John Brown tried to begin a slave rebellion in Virginia but was quickly captured and hanged. North was preparing to end slavery by bloody warfare. South voted against Lincoln but the N. supported him and he won the election. A few weeks later South Carolina voted to leave the Union. It was joined by the Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina. They proclaimed themselves an independent nation – the Confederate states of America, the war began. Southerners proclaimed that they were fighting not just for slavery, the S.was waging a war for independence – a second Am. Revolution. The Confederates had the advantage of fighting on their home territory; they had superb soldiers, cavalrymen and generals but they were outnumbered by the Union forces. The Union navy quickly imposed blockade, which created serious shortages of war material and consumer goods in the Confederacy. Lincoln’s two priorities were to keep the US one country and to rid the nation of slavery. On January 1, 1863 he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which granted freedom to all slaves in areas still controlled by the Confederacy. The Southern army won some victories in the early part of the war but Confederate commander Robert E. Lee's loss at Gettysburg in early July, 1863 proved the turning point. . The capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson by Ulysses S. Grant completed Union control of the Mississippi River. In 1864 a Union army under General William Sherman captured Atlanta, Georgia, and began his famous March to the Sea. Confederate resistance collapsed after Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. The war caused 620,000 soldier deaths. But it put an end to slavery. All slaves in the Confederacy were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, which stipulated that slaves in Confederate-held areas, but not in border states or in Washington, D.C., were free. Slaves in the border states and Union-controlled parts of the South were freed by state action or by the Thirteenth Amendment, although slavery effectively ended in the U.S. in the spring of 1865.

17. The West. The Mountain States. The West is a region of scenic beauty on a grand scale. In much of the West, the population is sparse and the federal government owns and manages millions of hectares of undeveloped land. 8 states: Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. Arizona. "arizonac", meaning "place of the small spring". Arizona was the 48th state to join the U.S. in 1912. It is rich in farm and mineral products and manufacturing is growing rapidly.  Vast irrigation systems have transformed the desert into rich farmland. The outstanding scenic feature is Grand Canyon, one of the seven wonders of the world. Colorado. from a Spanish word meaning "red" or "ruddy". Prospectors discovered gold in the middle of the last century, and the mining booms beginning in the late 1850s spurred Colorado's initial growth. The state's economy broadened when irrigated agriculture developed, and by the late 19th century livestock raising had become important. Early industry was based on the processing of minerals and agricultural products. In the second half of the 20th century the industrial and service sectors have expanded greatly. Denver is an important financial center. Camping, hiking, hunting and fishing. Idaho, the 43rd state, joined the U.S. in 1890. Logging as well as mining are big industries in the state. Best known for its potatoes. I. has a rugged landscape with some of the largest unspoiled natural areas in the country. Snow-capped mountain ranges, swirling white rapids, peaceful lakes and steep canyons. Montana. from the Latin word meaning "mountainous." M. was admitted into the Union as the 41st state in 1889. The state is the fourth largest state of the United States. Western Montana is a land of tall, rugged mountains; while eastern M is a land of broad plains. M experienced sudden development when gold was discovered in 1862. Agriculture: Cattle, wheat, barley, sugar beets, hay, hogs. Industry: Mining, lumber and wood products, food processing, tourism. Nevada's from the Spanish word meaning "snow clad". A mountain region that includes semiarid grasslands and sandy deserts, and is the most arid (dry) state in the nation. . Large, luxurious casinos in Las Vegas, Lake Tahoe and Reno. Agriculture: Cattle, hay, dairy products, potatoes. Industry: Tourism, mining, machinery, printing and publishing, food processing, electric equipment. New Mexico is called the Land of Enchantment. The state has a large Hispanic population, as New Mexico was under Spanish control from the 16th century until about 1846. Part of the "Old West", New Mexico was a place known for cowboys and cattle drives. The landscape ranges from rose-colored deserts to snow-capped mountains. Utah from the Ute, meaning “people of the mountains,” an Indian tribe who lived there before the pioneers arrived. One of Utah's most interesting places to visit is Mormon Temple Square in Salt Lake City. Agriculture: Cattle, dairy products, hay, turkeys. Industry: Machinery, aerospace, mining, food processing, electric equipment, tourism. Wyoming gets its name from the Algonquin words for "land of vast plains." In 1890, Wyoming became the 44th state. The first state to elect a woman governor. Yellowstone National Park (the world's first national park). Active geysers, spectacular towering waterfalls, hot springs, deep canyons and excellent fishing. Agriculture: Cattle, sugar beets, sheep, hay, wheat. Industry: Mining, chemical products, lumber and wood products, printing and publishing, machinery, tourism.

18. The Pacific States. California. 5 states Alaska, C, Hawaii, Oregon, Washington C is on the West Coast of the US, along the Pac O. It is the most populous state. Its 4 largest cities: Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, San Francisco (considered to be the most beautiful). Is known for its varied geography, ethnically diverse population(White Am, White Hispanics, Black Am,Asian Am,Am Indian, mixed, Latino).Geography is rich, complex, and varied. In the middle lies the C Central Valley, the Sierra Nevada to the east, the Cascade Range in the north and the Tehachapi Mountains in the south. The Sierra Nevada include the highest peak in the contiguous 48 states, Mount Whitney. About 35% of the state's total surface area is covered by forests. C is famous for earthquakes. It is vulnerable to tsunamis, floods, droughts, Santa Ana winds, has sev volcanoes. It is the 3d-largest st by land. Along with C's prosperous agric industry, other industries include aerospace, petroleum, computer and information technology. C ranks among the 10 largest economies in the world, and were it a separate country it would be 34th among the most populous countries. Climate varies from Mediterranean to subarctic. The 2 most prominent rivers are the Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River. The official language has been English. C also has sev imp seaports (the Port of Los Angeles and the Port of Long Beach in Southern C). C is governed as a republic, with 3 branches of government: the executive branch consisting of the Governor of C and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch consisting of the Assembly and Senate;and the judicial branch consisting of the Supreme Court of C and lower courts. The capital is Sacramento. C is divided into 58 counties.

19. The Pac States(Oregon, Washington, Alaska, Hawaii)/ All have coastlines on the Pac. O. (and are the only that border that O). Additionally, Nevada and Arizona are sometimes incl. despite the fact that neither of these states actually border the Pac. This is primarily because of strong ties that each state has to neighboring California. Hawaii is on an archipelago in the central Pac. O. southwest of the continental US. Was admitted to the Union in 1959, as the 50th st. Its capital is located in its major city, Honolulu. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the 8 "main islands". Hawaii is the largest, and is often called the "Big Island" to avoid confusion with the st as a whole. H is the only st of the US that: is not geograph. located in North Am; completely surrounded by water, continuously grows in area(due to active lava flows). The 1t recorded Europ. contact with the islands was in 1778 by Br. explorer James Cook. H has 2 official lang: Eng and Hawaiian. Washington is named after G. Washington, the 1t President of the US. Was carved out of the western part of W Territory and admitted to the Union in 1889. W is sometimes called W state or The state of W to distinguish it from the US capital. W's position on the Pac O and the harbors of Puget Sound give the state a leading role in maritime trade with Alaska, Canada. W is a land of contrasts. The deep forests of the Olympic Peninsula, such as the Hoh Rain Forest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental US, but the semi-desert east of the Cascade Range has few trees. Mount Rainier, the highest mountain in the state, is covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the lower 48 states. W is a leading agric. st. Oregon joined the Union in 1859. The region was part of the O Territory that was created after Euro-Am settlement began in the 1840s. Salem is the capital, while the most populous city is Portland. The valley of the Willamette River in western O is the most densely populated and agriculturally productive region of the st. The origin of the name "Oregon" is unknown. According to Stewart, the name came from an engraver's error in a French map published in the early 1700s, on which the Ouisiconsink (Wisconsin) River was spelled "Ouaricon-sint", broken on 2 lines with the -sint below, so that there appeared a river named "Ouaricon". Alaska is the largest st, one of the wealthiest and most racially diverse. Was purchased from the Russian Empire in 1867 for $7.2 mln. The land went through sev. administer. changes before becoming the 49th state in 1959. The name "A" is derived from the Aleut "the mainland". A is larger than the combined area of the next 3 largest states(Texas, California, Montana). A's economy relies heavily on petroleum extraction. A's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, pollock and crab. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state.