Important Terms

Anthropogenic – Human-induced or human-caused, derived from the Greek root anthropos meaning "man."

Biological diversity (biodiversity) – The variety of different living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the variety of different ecosystems that they form. This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems, and the genetic variability of each species.

Biological resources – Includes genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for humanity.

Biomass – The total amount of living organisms in a given area.

Biosphere – The global ecosystem; that part of the earth and atmosphere capable of supporting living organisms.

By-Product – A useful and marketable product or service that is not the primary product or service being produced.

Climate change – The slow variations of climatic characteristics over time at a given place. Usually refers to the change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is, in addition to natural climate variability, observed over comparable periods.

Climate – The long term average condition of the weather in a given area.

Classification – Classification attributes are environmental interventions/aspects listed in an environmental inventory/environmental effects register according to environmental impact categories.

Conservation – The long-term protection and sustainable management of natural resources in accordance with principles that ensure long-term economic and social benefits.

Co-Product – A marketable by-product from a process that can technically not be avoided. This includes materials that may be traditionally defined as waste such as industrial scrap that is subsequently used as a raw material in a different manufacturing process.

Contaminant – Any biological, chemical, physical or radiological substance that has an negative effect on air, soil or water.

Damage – A deterioration in the quality of the environment not directly attributable to depletion or pollution.

Deforestation – The felling of trees, usually for commercial purposes.

Desertification – Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.

Depletion – The result of the extraction of abiotic resources (non-renewable) from the environment or the extraction of biotic resources (renewable) faster than they can be renewed.

Ecosphere – Refers to the entire global ecosystem that comprises atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere as inseparable components.

Ecosystem – A dynamic and complex system of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment all interacting as a functional unit within a defined physical location. The term may be applied to a unit as large as the entire ecosphere, but usually refers to a division thereof.

Emission – One or more substances released to the water, air or soil in the natural environment.

Endangered species – A species threatened with extinction.

Environment – Surroundings in which an organization operates, including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans, and their interrelations. This definition extends the view from a company focus to the global system.

Environmental Aspects – Elements of an organization's activities, products or services which can interact with the environment (ISO 14004). A significant environmental aspect is an environmental aspect which has or can have a significant environmental impact.

Environmental Effect – Any direct or indirect impingement of activities, products and services of an organization upon the environment, whether adverse or beneficial. An environmental effect is the consequence of an environmental intervention in an environmental system.

Environmental Intervention – Exchange between the economy and the environment including resource extraction, emissions to the air, water, or soil, and aspects of land use. If resource extraction is excluded, the term used in this case is environmental release.

Environmental Inventory – An environmental inventory identifies and quantifies - where appropriate - all environmental aspects of an organization's activities, products and services.

Environmental Problem – An environmental problem is a description of a known process within the environment or a state of the environment which has adverse effects on the sustainability of the environment including society. They include resource consumption and environmental impacts.

Eutrophication – Over-enrichment of a water body with nutrients, resulting in excessive growth of organisms and depletion of oxygen concentration.

Extinct species – A species that no longer survives anywhere in the world.

Fossil fuels – Coal, oil, petroleum, and natural gas and other hydrocarbons are called fossil fuels because they are made of fossilized, carbon-rich plant and animal remains.

Global Warming – Strictly speaking, global warming and global cooling refer to the natural warming and cooling trends that the Earth has experienced all through its history. However, the term usually refers to the gradual rise in the Earth's temperatures that could result from the accumulated gases that are trapped in the atmosphere.

Greenhouse effect – A warming of the Earth's atmosphere caused by the presence in the atmosphere of certain heat-trapping gases (e.g., water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane). These gases absorb radiation emitted by the Earth, thereby retarding the loss of energy from the system to space.

Greenhouse gases – Those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and artificial, that absorb and reemit infrared radiation and that are responsible for global warming. The most potent greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, is rapidly accumulating in the atmosphere due to human activities.

Hazardous waste – Refuse that could present dangers through the contamination and pollution of the environment. It requires special disposal techniques to make it harmless or less dangerous.

Industrial Revolution – The Industrial Revolution began in the early 1800's and heralded the birth of the "modern times." After the Industrial Revolution, work that was done by hand was accomplished through the use of machines. It brought on the advent of the steam engine, cotton gin, sewing machine, paper, telegraph, and railroad and it saw the beginnings of many of our present industries.

Natural resource – (e.g., tree biomass, fresh water, fish) whose supply can essentially never be exhausted, usually because it is continuously produced.

Non-renewable resources – Natural resources that are not naturally replenished once they have been harvested. Non-renewable resources can be used up completely or else used up to such a degree that it is economically impractical to obtain any more of them. Fossil fuels and metal ores are examples of non-renewable resources.

Pollution – Residual discharges of emissions to the air or water following application of emission control devices (EPA 1993b).

Prevention of Pollution – The use of processes, practices, methods or products that avoid, reduce or control pollution. These may include recycling, treatment, process changes, control mechanisms, efficient use of resources and material substitution.

Recycling – The process of re-using material for the production of new goods or services on the same quality level. If the quality of the goods and services produced with recycled material is lower, then the process is known as downcycling.

Resources – Materials found in the environment that can be extracted from the environment in an economic process. There are abiotic resources (non-renewable) and biotic resources (renewable).

Reuse – The additional use of a component, part, or product after it has been removed from a clearly defined service cycle. Reuse does not include reformation. However, cleaning, repair, or refurbishing may be done between uses.

System – A collection of operations that perform a desired function.

Sustainable development – Development that ensures that the use of resources and the environment today does not compromise their use in the future.

Toxic – Harmful to living organisms.

Ultraviolet Radiation (UV) – Electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of 200 to 400 nanometres. (Also known as ultraviolet light).

Waste – An output with no marketable value that is discharged to the environment. Normally the term "waste" refers to solid or liquid materials.

Unit II. The Problems of Air Pollution.

“It all depends on you and me. If we see the world as a living organism of which we are a part—not the owner, nor the tenant; not even a passenger—we could have a long time ahead of us and our species might survive for its “allotted span.” It is up to us to act personally in a way that is constructive. The present frenzy of agriculture and forestry is a global ecocide as foolish as it would be to act on the notion that our brains are supreme and the cells of other organs expendable. Would we drill wells through our skins to take the blood for its nutrients?”

James Lovelock, scientist

Before you read

• Do you agree with the idea given in the quotation of this unit?

• What manifestations of air pollution do you feel every day?

• When do you think the problem of air pollution appeared?

As you read Text 1

• Which paragraphs contain the following information?

A The first negative impact of air pollution humans got.

B The definition of atmosphere.

C The definition of air pollution.

D Natural sources of air pollution.

E Notable examples of natural air pollution.

F Man-made sources of air pollution.

Text 1. The Matter of the Problem.

The Background in Brief.

Air is the ocean we breathe. Air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our bodies to live. Air is 99.9% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and inert gases. Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.

Humans probably first experienced harm from air pollution when they built fires in poorly ventilated caves. Since then we have gone on to pollute more of the earth's surface. Until recently, environmental pollution problems have been local and minor because of the Earth's own ability to absorb and purify minor quantities of pollutants. The industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized vehicles, and the explosion of the population, are factors contributing toward the growing air pollution problem. At this time it is urgent that we find methods to clean up the air.

The primary air pollutants found in most urban areas are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (both solid and liquid). These pollutants are dispersed throughout the world's atmosphere in concentrations high enough to gradually cause serious health problems. Serious health problems can occur quickly when air pollutants are concentrated, such as when massive injections of sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter are emitted by a large volcanic eruption.

While man-made air pollution does present health hazards, natural sources of air pollution can be equally dangerous at times. These sources include dust picked up by wind erosion, the emission of methane by livestock, and smoke from wildfires. Volcanic eruptions are perhaps the largest single source of air pollution, natural or man-made, that humans have ever dealt with. These can produce clouds of abrasive volcanic ash and other harmful substances such as chlorine and sulfur.

Air pollution results from a variety of causes, not all of which are within human control. Dust storms in desert areas and smoke from forest fires and grass fires contribute to chemical and particulate pollution of the air. The source of pollution may be in one country but the impact of pollution may be felt elsewhere. The discovery of pesticides in Antarctica, where they have never been used, suggests the extent to which aerial transport can carry pollutants from one place to another. Probably the most important natural source of air pollution is volcanic activity, which at times pours great amounts of ash and toxic fumes into the atmosphere.

Most notably, the eruption of Indonesia’s Mount Tambora in 1815 sent such a huge amount of noxious gases and particulate matter into the atmosphere, that much solar energy was effectively blocked from reaching the earth’s surface. As a result, widespread famines were suffered worldwide in 1816. Brown and red snows were also seen in Europe, due to the presence of volcanic ash in the atmosphere. A killing frost in July of 1816 also led to massive crop failures in the northeastern United States, leading to colloquial references to 1816 as “The Year Without a Summer,” and “Eighteen Hundred And Froze To Death.”

The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment, into the atmosphere. Thus, air pollution can be defined as any harmful material that is present in the earth’s atmosphere. It is aggravated because of four developments: increasing traffic, growing cities, rapid economic development, and industrialization. The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 19th century saw the beginning of air pollution as we know it today, which has gradually become a global problem.

The causes of air pollution, therefore, are many and highly varied. Some sources are natural, such as volcanism or forest fires started by lightning, while others are brought about by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels. While the earth does have built-in mechanisms for getting rid of air pollution, it is usually better for all living things to reduce the amount of pollutants released into the air to begin with.

Some other sources of air pollution are man-made. The burning of petroleum products is a very common cause of air pollution, especially in metropolitan areas. This pollution comes from chemical factors present when these fuels combust. When hydrocarbons such as gasoline are burned, they produce carbon dioxide and water vapor. Incomplete combustion leads to carbon monoxide also being created as a byproduct.

After you read Text 1

• Complete the following sentences according to the context:

1. The first negative impact of air pollution humans got when they ……………

2. The primary air pollutants of urban areas are dispersed ………. in …………

3. Natural sources of air pollution include ……………………………………...

4. The source of pollution may be in one country but …………………………..

5. Air pollution is the ………………….. that cause ……………………………

6. Air pollution is aggravated because of ……………………………………….

As you read Text 2

• Choose the words from the text to complete this summary of the text.

Pollution needs to be considered … and … our homes, offices, and schools, therefore it is divided into so called … and … air pollution.

Text 2. The Main Types of Air Pollution.

There are several main types of pollution and well-known effects of pollution which are commonly discussed. These include smog, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and "holes" in the ozone layer. Each of these problems has serious implications for our health and well-being as well as for the whole environment.

One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air from burning fuel for energy. Diesel smoke is a good example of this particulate matter. The particles are very small pieces of matter measuring about 2.5 microns. This type of pollution is sometimes referred to as "black carbon" pollution. The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source of pollution in the air. Some authorities believe that even the burning of wood and charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques can release significant quantities of soot into the air.

Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. These can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, forming smog and acid rain.

Pollution also needs to be considered inside our homes, offices, and schools. Some of these pollutants can be created by indoor activities such as smoking and cooking. It is therefore important to consider both indoor and outdoor air pollution.

Indoor Air Pollution. Many people spend large portion of time indoors - as much as 80-90% of their lives. We work, study, eat, drink and sleep in enclosed environments where air circulation may be restricted. For these reasons, some experts feel that more people suffer from the effects of indoor air pollution than outdoor pollution.

In the developing countries, it is the rural areas that face the greatest threat from indoor pollution, where some 3.5 billion people continue to rely on traditional fuels such as firewood, charcoal, and cowdung for cooking and heating. Concentrations of indoor pollutants in households that burn traditional fuels are alarming. Burning such fuels produces large amount of smoke and other air pollutants in the confined space of the home, resulting in high exposure. Women and children are the groups most vulnerable as they spend more time indoors and are exposed to the smoke.

There are many other sources of indoor air pollution. Tobacco smoke, cooking and heating appliances, and vapors from building materials, paints, furniture, etc. cause pollution inside buildings. Radon is a natural radioactive gas released from the earth, and it can be found concentrated in basements in some parts of different countries.

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.

Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), several forms of diseases may defined as: asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Pollution exposure at home and work is often greater than outdoors. The California Air Resources Board estimates that indoor air pollutant levels are 25-62% greater than outside levels and can pose serious health problems. Both indoor and outdoor pollution need to be controlled and/or prevented.

Outdoor Air Pollution. Smog is a type of large-scale outdoor pollution. It is caused by chemical reactions between pollutants derived from different sources, primarily automobile exhaust and industrial emissions. Cities are often centers of these types of activities, and many suffer from the effects of smog, especially during the warm months of the year.

For each city, the exact causes of pollution may be different. Depending on the geographical location, temperature, wind and weather factors, pollution is dispersed differently. However, sometimes this does not happen and the pollution can build up to dangerous levels. A temperature inversion occurs when air close to the earth is cooler than the air above it. Under these conditions the pollution cannot rise and be dispersed. Cities surrounded by mountains also experience trapping of pollution. Inversion can happen in any season. Winter inversions are likely to cause particulate and carbon monoxide pollution. Summer inversions are more likely to create smog.

Another consequence of outdoor air pollution is acid rain. When a pollutant, such as sulfuric acid combines with droplets of water in the air, the water (or snow) can become acidified . The effects of acid rain on the environment can be very serious. It damages plants by destroying their leaves, it poisons the soil, and it changes the chemistry of lakes and streams. Damage due to acid rain kills trees and harms animals, fish, and other wildlife.

After you read Text 2. Answer these questions:

1. How much time do usually people spend indoors?

2. What are the main sources of indoor pollution?

3. What is outdoor pollution caused by?

4. When does a temperature inversion occur?

5. Why is a temperature inversion harmful?

As you read Text 3

• Match these headings to paragraphs 1–6. There is one heading you do not need:

A Tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas.

B Minor hazardous air pollutants.

C A key constituent of the troposphere.

D Pollutants directly emitted from a process.

E What is air pollutant?

F Indoor air pollutants.

G Pollutants which are not emitted directly (secondary).

Text 3. The Major Air Pollutants and Their Sources.

“I’ll go out for a breath of fresh air” – is an often-heard phrase. But how many of us realize that this has become irrelevant in today’s world, because the quality of air in our cities is anything but fresh. An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made.

Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary.

Usually, primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include: sulfur oxides/ sulfur dioxide, produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources; nitrogen dioxide is emitted from high temperature combustion, and it is one of the most prominent air pollutants; carbon monoxide – a very poisonous gas is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. It is also produced from the combustion of natural and synthetic products such as cigarettes. It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood. It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and sleepy. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide; carbon dioxide (CO2) - a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas vital to living organisms. It is a natural gas in the atmosphere. Chloroflorocarbons (CFC) are gases that are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and refrigeration. When released into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere, where they come in contact with few other gases, which leads to a reduction of the ozone layer that protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.

Particulate matter – particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols; ammonia - emitted from agricultural processes; radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone — one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog. Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. Secondary pollutants include: particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.

Ground level ozone is a key constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.

Minor air pollutants include: a large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.

After you read Text 3

• Make up the table classifying air pollutants according to their types and including the names, sources and some characteristics.

Before you read Texts 4 and 5

• Look at the titles of the texts. Which of these problems are typical for your area? Have you ever heard about them?

• What do you think these problems are caused by?

As you read Texts 4 and 5. Do these texts:

A give a solution to the problems?

B describe the phenomenon of acid rain, ozone depletion and smog?

C contain the information on these problems in our country?

D describe the effects of some problems on human health.

Text 4. Acid Rain and Ozone Depletion Problems.

Nitrogen oxide (Nox) causes acid rain. It is produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal. Nitrogen oxides can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in winters. The phenomenon occurs when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the burning of fossil fuels such as, petrol, diesel, and coal combine with water vapour in the atmosphere and fall as rain, snow or fog. These gases can also be emitted from natural sources like volcanoes. Acid rain causes extensive damage to water, forest, soil resources and even human health. Many lakes and streams have been contaminated and this has led to the disappearance of some species of fish in Europe, USA and Canada as also extensive damage to forests and other forms of life. It is said that it can corrode buildings and be hazardous to human health. Because the contaminants are carried long distances, the sources of acid rain are difficult to pinpoint and hence difficult to control. For example, the acid rain that may have damaged some forest in Canada could have originated in the industrial areas of USA. In fact, this has created disagreements between Canada and the United States and among European countries over the causes of and solutions to the problem of acid rain. The international scope of the problem has led to the signing of international agreements on the limitation of sulphur and nitrogen oxide emissions.

Ozone depletion is another result of air pollution. Chemicals released by our activities affect the stratosphere, one of the atmospheric layers surrounding earth. The ozone layer in the stratosphere protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) from aerosol cans, cooling systems and refrigerator equipment removes some of the ozone, causing "holes"; to open up in this layer and allowing the radiation to reach the earth. Ultraviolet radiation is known to cause skin cancer and has damaging effects on plants and wildlife.

Text 5. Smog.

The term smog was first used in 1905 by Dr H A Des Voeux to describe the conditions of fog that had soot or smoke in it. Smog is a combination of various gases with water vapour and dust. A large part of the gases that form smog is produced when fuels are burnt. Smog forms when heat and sunlight react with these gases and fine particles in the air. Smog can affect outlying suburbs and rural areas as well as big cities. Its occurrences are often linked to heavy traffic, high temperatures, and calm winds. During the winter, wind speeds are low and cause the smoke and fog to stagnate; hence pollution levels can increase near ground level. This keeps the pollution close to the ground, right where people are breathing. It hampers visibility and harms the environment. Heavy smog is greatly decreases ultraviolet radiation. In fact, in the early part of the 20th century, heavy smog in some parts of Europe resulted in a decrease in the production of natural vitamin D leading to a rise in the cases of rickets. Smog causes a misty haze similar to fog, but very different in composition. In fact the word smog has been coined from a combination of the words fog and smoke. Smog refers to hazy air that causes difficult breathing conditions.

The most harmful components of smog are ground-level ozone and fine airborne particles. Ground-level ozone forms when pollutants released from gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles and oil-based solvents react with heat and sunlight. It is harmful to humans, animals, and plants.

The industrial revolution in the 19th century saw the beginning of air pollution in Europe on a large scale and the presence of smog mainly in Britain. The industries and the households relied heavily on coal for heating and cooking. Due to the burning of coal for heat during the winter months, emissions of smoke and sulphur dioxide were much greater in urban areas than they were during the summer months. Smoke particles trapped in the fog gave it a yellow/black colour and this smog often settled over cities for many days.

The effects of smog on human health were evident, particularly when smog persisted for several days. Many people suffered respiratory problems and increased deaths were recorded, notably those relating to bronchial causes. A haze of dense harmful smog would often cover the city of London. The first smog-related deaths were recorded in London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1880, the toll was 2000. London had one of its worst experiences with smog in December 1892. It lasted for three days and resulted in about 1000 deaths. London became quite notorious for its smog. By the end of the 19th century, many people visited London to see the fog. Despite gradual improvements in air quality during the 20th century, another major smog occurred in London in December 1952.

Early in December 1952, a cold fog descended upon London. Because of the cold, Londoners began to burn more coal than usual. The resulting air pollution was trapped by the inversion layer formed by the dense mass of cold air. Concentrations of pollutants, coal smoke in particular, built up dramatically. The problem was made worse by use of low-quality, high-sulphur coal for home heating in London in order to permit export of higher-quality coal, because of the country's tenuous postwar economic situation. The "fog", or smog, was so thick that driving became difficult or impossible. The extreme reduction in visibility was accompanied by an increase in criminal activity as well as transportation delays and a virtual shut down of the city. During the 4 day period of fog, at least 4000 people died as a direct result of the weather. In response to the Great London Smog, the government passed its first Clean Air Act in 1956, which aimed to control domestic sources of smoke pollution by introducing smokeless zones. In addition, the introduction of cleaner coals led to a reduction in sulphur dioxide pollution.

Relatively little was done to control any type of pollution or to promote environmental protection until the middle of the 20th century. Today, smoke and sulphur dioxide pollution in cities is much lower than in the past, as a result of legislation to control pollution emissions and cleaner emission technology.

After you read Text 4 and 5. Look at the texts and try to find:

1. words which describe acid rain causes;

2. adjectives which describe effects of smog;

3. verbs which describe acid rain, ozone depletion and smog origin;

4. nouns which explain the matter of the ozone depletion problem.

As you read Texts 6 and 7

• What, in your opinion, are the most dangerous consequences of these problems?

• Text 6 mentions the greenhouse effect discovery. Who managed this? When?

• What do the climate model projections indicate?

• Find out some ways of solving the fly ash problem (according to Text 7).

Text 6. The Greenhouse Effect. Global Warming.

The Greenhouse Effect, also referred to as global warming, is generally believed to come from the build up of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is produced when fuels are burned. Plants convert carbon dioxide back to oxygen, but the release of carbon dioxide from human activities is higher than the world's plants can process. The situation is made worse since many of the earth's forests are being removed, and plant life is being damaged by acid rain. Thus, the amount of carbon dioxide in the air is continuing to increase. This buildup acts like a blanket and traps heat close to the surface of our earth. Changes of even a few degrees will affect us all through changes in the climate and even the possibility that the polar ice caps may melt. (One of the consequences of polar ice cap melting would be a rise in global sea level, resulting in widespread coastal flooding.)

The ability of the atmosphere to capture and recycle energy emitted by the Earth surface is the defining characteristic of the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the heating of the surface of a planet or moon due to the presence of an atmosphere containing gases that absorb and emit infrared radiation. Thus, greenhouse gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system. This mechanism is fundamentally different from that of an actual greenhouse, which works by isolating warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection. The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824, first reliably experimented on by John Tyndall in 1858, and first reported quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.

In the absence of the greenhouse effect and an atmosphere, the Earth's average surface temperature of 14 °C could be as low as −18 °C, the black body temperature of the Earth. Global warming, a recent warming of the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, is believed to be the result of an "enhanced greenhouse effect" mostly (more than 50%) due to human-produced increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases. This human induced part is refered to as anthropogenic global warming (AGW).

Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C during the last century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century was caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases resulting from human activity such as fossil fuel burning and deforestation. The IPCC also concludes that variations in natural phenomena such as solar radiation and volcanoes produced most of the warming from pre-industrial times to 1950 and had a small cooling effect afterward. These basic conclusions have been endorsed by more than 40 scientific societies and academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries.

Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global surface temperature will probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C during the twenty-first century. The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of differing estimates of future greenhouse gas emissions. Some other uncertainties include how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most studies focus on the period up to the year 2100. However, warming is expected to continue beyond 2100 even if emissions stop, because of the large heat capacity of the oceans and the long lifetime of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical deserts. The continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice is expected, with warming being strongest in the Arctic. Other likely effects include increases in the intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields.

Political and public debate continues regarding climate change, and what actions (if any) to take in response. The available options are mitigation to reduce further emissions; adaptation to reduce the damage caused by warming; and, more speculatively, geoengineering to reverse global warming. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Text 7. Flyash.

With the boom in population and industrial growth, the need for power has increased manifold. Nearly 73% of India’s total installed power generation capacity is thermal, of which 90% is coal-based generation, with diesel, wind, gas, and steam making up the rest. Thermal power generation through coal combustion produces minute particles of ash that causes serious environmental problems.

Commonly known as fly ash, these ash particles consist of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and copper.

The 80-odd utility thermal power stations in India use bituminous coal and produce large quantities of fly ash. According to specialists, up to 150 million tonnes of fly ash were produced in India in the year 2000, primarily by thermal power plants and, to a lesser extent, by cement and steel plants and railways. This poses problems in the form of land use, health hazards, and environmental dangers. Both in disposal and in utilization utmost care has to be taken to safeguard the interest of human life, wild life, and such other considerations.

The prevalent practice is to dump fly ash on wastelands, and this has lain to waste thousands of hectares all over the country. To prevent the fly ash from getting airborne, the dumping sites have to be constantly kept wet by sprinkling water over the area. The coal industry in USA spends millions of dollars on lining fly ash dumping grounds. But in India, these sites are not lined and it leads to seepage, contaminating groundwater and soil. It lowers soil fertility and contaminates surface and ground water as it can leach into the subsoil. When fly ash gets into the natural draining system, it results in siltation and clogs the system. Fly ash interferes with the process of photosynthesis of aquatic plants and thus disturbs the food chain. Besides, fly ash corrodes exposed metallic structures in its vicinity.

Fly ash management has taken considerable strides over the past few years. Researches have been attempting to convert this waste into wealth by exploring viable avenues for fly ash management. Fly ash is oxide-rich and can be used as the raw material for different industries.

Today, fly ash bricks can be used as a building material. The American Embassy in India has used fly ash bricks in some of its recent construction. Use of fly ash as a part replacement of cement in mortar and concrete has started with the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi taking the lead. Use of fly ash in the construction of roads and embankments has been successfully demonstrated in the country and it is gaining acceptance. The NTPC (National Thermal Power Corporation) is setting up two fly ash brick manufacturing plants at Badarpur and Dadri near Delhi.

Researchers have proven that fly ash dumps can be reclaimed by suitable addition of organic matter and symbiotic fungi, making it commercially viable for activities like floriculture and silviculture. The researchers have successfully reclaimed a part of an ash pond at the Badarpur Thermal Power Station by introducing a mycorrhizal fungi-based organic bio-fertilizer. It improves the plant's water and nutrient uptake, helps in the development of roots and soil-binding, protects the plants from soil-borne diseases, and detoxifies contaminated soils. This helps in keeping both air and water pollution under control. It also helps revive wastelands and saves millions of litres of precious water from going down the fly ash slurries.

After you read Text 6 and 7

• Complete the following sentences according to the context:

1. An increase in global temperature will cause ………………………………..

2. The defining characteristic of the greenhouse effect is ………………………

3. ……………………. cause such a serious environmental problem as fly ash.

4. Fly ash dumps can be reclaimed by ………………………………………….

5. Carbon dioxide amount increase acts like a ………………………………….

Before you read Texts 8 and 9

• What are air pollution effects you feel almost every day?

• What do you think is necessary to do to reduce air pollution?

As you read Texts 8 and 9. Read these questions and choose the best answer:

1. According to the text 8 the extent of air pollution harm on a man depends on

A the air pollution control technologies and land use planning;

B the duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals.

2. The term exposure in the text 8 means:

A the state of being in a place or situation where there is no protection from something harmful;

B the state of having the true facts about somebody or something told after they have been hidden because they are bad.

3. Land use planning is a very important part of social policy, because:

A it reduces pollution from mobile sources and increases fuel efficiency;

B it ensures that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment.

Text 8. Health Effects.

Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both short-term and long-term effects. Different groups of individuals are affected by air pollution in different ways. Some individuals are much more sensitive to pollutants than are others. Young children and elderly people often suffer more from the effects of air pollution. People with health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease may also suffer more when the air is polluted. The extent to which an individual is harmed by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e., the duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals must be taken into account.

Examples of short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema. In the great "Smog Disaster" in London in 1952, four thousand people died in a few days due to the high concentrations of pollution.

Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly. It is estimated that half a million people die prematurely every year in the United States as a result of smoking cigarettes.

The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution. "Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution." A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles. Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents. Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from air pollution annually. Direct causes of air pollution related deaths include aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies.

Effects on children. Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well as a low initial birth rate. Research by the World Health Organization shows there is the greatest concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic world power and high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. The Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in areas that did not meet at least one of the “criteria pollutants” laid out in the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Those pollutants included: ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Because children are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution.

Text 9. What You Can Do to Reduce Air Pollution.

There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to reduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment.

Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to electric vehicles).

The task of cleaning up air pollution, though difficult, is not believed to be impossible. The shift to less polluting forms of power generation, such as solar energy, wind energy, geothermal, tidal and other forms of renewable energy in place of fossil fuel can be used for controlling pollution. The example of London, as well as of other cities, has shown that major improvements in air quality can be achieved in 10 years or less.

Many cities in India now have pollution control checks for vehicles. Cars are being fitted with catalytic converters and unleaded petrol is being used. There is an attempt to keep a check on polluting industrial units by the judiciary. Cars that use CNG have also been introduced.

You can also contribute to reducing air pollution to some extent. One of the first things you can start doing is to conserve energy. Walk or ride a bicycle to the market or to your friend’s house. Take a bus to school or organize a carpool. See to it that the use of aerosols is reduced in your house. Make sure that your father or mother gets a pollution check of the car done at regular intervals and that the car is well maintained. Trees give out oxygen and take in carbon dioxide and thereby clean the air around us. It is therefore our duty to take care of them. Look after the trees in your neighborhood, along with your friends, begin a tree watch similar to a neighborhood watch. See to it that trees in your area are looked after. Plant more trees and tend to them too.

Switch off the lights and fans each time you leave a room. During the day, use only the required number of lights. At home, during hot summer months when you tend to use an airconditioner or a cooler or a heater on very cold winter days, learn to share the room with your brother or sister when you are studying, watching the television, etc.

After you read Texts 8 and 9

• Can you think of any more solutions to cleaning up air pollution?

• Have you found new facts and ideas on the problem of air pollution in the texts?

Fast Facts

• The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. It was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.

• Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C (59 °F).

• The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36–70 percent of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26 percent; methane (CH4), which causes 4–9 percent; and ozone (O3), which causes 3–7 percent.

• The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the19th Century first saw the beginning of air pollution, which gradually became a major global problem.

• The major air-polluting industries are iron, steel and cement.

• Of the 35-40 million tonnes of flyash generated annually by thermal power plants in India, only 2-3 percent is productively utilized.

• Every year some 50 million cars are added to the world’s roads. Car making is now the largest manufacturing industry in the world.

• Growing population, poverty, and inadequate access to clean fuels in rural areas have perpetuated the use of biomass, thereby condemning more than 90% of rural households and more than 35% of urban households to high levels of indoor air pollution.

• One of the most important measure to counter pollution is planting trees. With neem and peepal being the largest emitters of oxygen, planting them in the gardens purifies the surrounding air and helps in maintaining hygienic conditions. While champa, mogra and chameli have better chances of surviving pollution in summer, bulbous varieties do better in winter.