ВВЕДЕНИЕ
Методическое пособие предназначено для студентов как дневного, так и вечернего отделений технического вуза. Материал предлагаемого пособия подобран с учетом требований программы по английскому языку для студентов высших учебных заведений.
Основными целями обучения иностранного языка в вузе являются:
- овладение студентами навыками иноязычного общения на высоком уровне;
- развитие способностей студентов использовать иностранный язык как инструмент общения в диалоге культур и цивилизаций современного мира.
В процессе обучения иностранным языкам осуществляется развитие и образование личности, которая достигает высокого уровня коммуникативной компетенции применительно ко всем видам речевой деятельности: говорению, аудированию, чтению и письму. Формирование коммуникативной компетенции включает в себя речевую компетенцию (речевые и коммуникативные умения), языковую компетенцию (языковые знания и навыки их использования) и социально-культурную компетенцию.
В качестве ведущей цели определяются говорение и понимание иноязычной речи на слух. Чтение с пониманием и письмо сохраняются как важные цели обучения, обладающие большой образовательной и социокультурной значимостью, способствующие обучению студентов технологии языкового самообразования, а именно: обучение технике работы с различными видами справочной иноязычной литературы, развитию культуры письменной речи, формирование механизма языковой догадки и умения переноса навыков в новую ситуацию, а также интеллектуальных способностей.
Дисциплина «Иностранный язык» тесно связана с такими дисциплинами, как «Русский язык», «Родной (башкирский, татарский и др.) язык», «Литература», «Культура речи», «Мировая национальная культура».
По окончании курса дисциплины «Иностранный (английский) язык» студенты овладевают следующими иноязычными умениями:
Аудирование.
Студент должен понимать на слух монологическую, диалогическую речь в пределах изученного языкового материала при непосредственном общении и в звукозаписи.
Говорение.
Студент должен уметь вести беседу, интервью, дискуссию в пределах изученного материала. Студент должен уметь сделать распространенное устное сообщение на литературную, общественно-политическую или страноведческую тему; передать содержание прочитанного или прослушанного текста; дать оценку коммуникативной ситуации; выразить собственное мнение; дать характеристику персонажей; прокомментировать фрагмент фильма.
Чтение.
Студент должен владеть навыками ознакомительного, изучающего чтения научно-популярных, общественно-политических и художественных текстов; навыками выразительного чтения любых текстов.
Письмо.
Студент должен уметь орфографически правильно писать различные виды диктантов, изложений, сочинений в пределах изученного лексического материала; должен уметь выразить свои мысли в письменной форме, используя приемы описания, повествования, рассуждения.
Целью данного пособия являются:
- закрепление, углубление, расширение и систематизация полученных знаний и практических умений студентов;
- формирование умения правильного понимания английской речи и навыков грамотного применения грамматических явлений в устной и письменной формах речи;
- формирование у студентов навыков самостоятельного приобретения новых знаний, интереса к активной познавательной деятельности;
- формирование у студентов умения работать со специальной литературой, справочниками, периодическими изданиями, Интернетом;
- развитие у студентов организованности, инициативы, дисциплинированности, ответственности.
За семестр студенты выполняют три РГР. РГР за 1 полугодие включает:
а) чтение, перевод, аннотирование газетного текста;
б) выполнение и защиту контрольной работы;
в*) раскрытие значений устойчивых выражений, пословиц и поговорок, фразеологических сочетаний.
РГР за 2 полугодие включает:
а) чтение, перевод, аннотирование научно- технического текста;
б) выполнение и защиту контрольной работы;
в*) написание сочинений, рефератов на заданную тему.
Контрольные работы распределены по четырем семестрам. Каждая контрольная работа содержит несколько текстов. Вариант текста соответственно указывается преподавателем. В зависимости от специализации преподаватель может предлагать и другие варианты текстов, однако задания к текстам остаются такие же, как предложено в данном методическом пособии в соответствии с программными требованиями к каждому семестру. До выполнения контрольной работы рекомендуется повторить теоретический материал и выполнить контрольно-тренировочные упражнения по СРС за соответствующий семестр. Контрольные работы студенты выполняют дома и защищают в установленные сроки по графику. Контрольные работы выполняются студентами в рабочих тетрадях. В тетради должны быть поля для замечаний и исправлений. Задания следует переписать в тетрадь.
Газетные тексты для чтения и перевода подбираются из периодической печати на английском языке индивидуально для каждого студента.
Научно-технические тексты подбираются преподавателем из учебников и пособий по английскому языку в зависимости от специализации, индивидуальных особенностей и уровня подготовки студента.
* - данный вид творческого задания может видоизменяться по усмотрению преподавателя.
Все виды РГР студенты защищают в установленные сроки по графику, сдают преподавателю в письменном виде с соблюдением требований, предъявляемых к работам подобного рода. Образец оформления титульного листа РГР дается в приложении.
Студенты, не справившиеся с заданиями по РГР, не допускаются к зачету (или экзамену) за соответствующий учебный семестр.
Контрольная работа № 1
1 Прочитайте текст и письменно ответьте по-английски на вопросы, следующие за текстом.
2 Выпишите из текста существительные в единственном числе и поставьте их во множественном числе.
3 Выпишите из текста предложные конструкции с предлогом of и переведите их на русский язык. Замените существительные с предлогом of существительными в притяжательном падеже.
4 Выпишите из текста прилагательные и наречия, переведите их на русский язык и образуйте степени сравнения.
5 Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых употреблены местоимения. Укажите, к какой группе они относятся (личные, притяжательные, указательные, вопросительные, относительные).
6 Выпишите из текста все неправильные глаголы, запишите их основные формы и переведите их на русский язык.
7 Выпишите из текста предложения в Present Indefinite (Simple) и переведите их на русский язык. Напишите эти предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной формах.
8 Выпишите из текста предложения в Past или Future Indefinite (Simple) и переведите их на русский язык. Напишите эти предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной формах.
9 Поставьте глагол-сказуемое одного предложения из текста во все временные формы группы Indefinite в страдательном залоге, произведя все необходимые смысловые изменения.
Образец: The text is translated by the student.
The text was translated by the student yesterday.
The text will be translated by the student tomorrow.
10 Переведите письменно текст контрольной работы № 1 на русский язык. При переводе пользуйтесь англо-русским словарем.
ТЕХТ 1
LIFE IN LONDON
We were met at the station by a comrade living in London in emigration, who had a fine knowledge of English. At first he acted as our guide, as we were in rather a hopeless position by ourselves. We thought we knew the English language, having even translated a whole book (the Webb's) from English into Russian, when we were in Siberia. I learnt English in prison from a self-instructor, but never heard a single word spoken. When we arrived in London, we found we could not understand a single word, and nobody understood us. We started going to all kinds of meetings. We stood in the front row and carefully studied the orator 's mouth. We went fairly often to Hyde Park where speakers addressed the passing crowds of different themes.
We learnt a great deal by listening to spoken English. Afterwards, we found two Englishmen who wanted to exchange lessons and began studying with them. He got to know the language fairly well.
We also studied London. We did not, however, visit the London museums, except the British Museum, where we spent much time. But there we were attracted not by the museum, but by the richest library in the world.
We studied living London. We loved to climb to the top of an omnibus and go on long rides about the town. We liked the movement of this big commercial city. The quiet squares, the rich homes with their shining windows and green lawns, and near them the dirty little streets, inhabited by the London working people. In such districts we went on foot, and seeing these striking contrasts in richness and poverty, we would matter through clenched teeth and in English: "Two nations!"
(From Reminiscences of V. 1.L Lenin by
N. K. Krupskaya)
Questions
1) Did they know English well when they arrived in London?
2) In what way did they begin studying the English language?
3) Why did they like to visit the British Museum?
4) How did they study living London?
Note
1) self-instructor - самоучитель
TEXT 2
SPECIAL EDUCATION
The education of handicapped children in Russia is a part of the state educational system. A few months after the Great October Socialist Revolution, the state took upon itself the care of handicapped children.
On December 10, 1919, in a decree signed by V. I. Lenin, the Council of People's Commissars determined the functions of the various People's Commissariats in regard to the education and medical care of physically and mentally handicapped children. In accordance with this decision, retarded children were to be cared for and educated in the so-called auxiliary schools, while blind, deaf and physically handicapped children were to attend corresponding special schools of the People's Commissariat of Education.
In time, a unified system for bringing up and educating handicapped children was created. This network of special establishments has been under constant improvement.
At present blind children and those with severely impaired eyesight receive a complete secondary education in the course of 12 years of study. Deaf and 2nd division hard of hearing pupils are given the same period to acquire the curriculum of the eight-year secondary education, while 1st division hard of hearing children accomplish the programme of the ordinary ten-year secondary school in 12 years.
There are special evening secondary schools for working adults who are blind, partially sighted, or deaf or hard of hearing. Auxiliary schools (for mentally retarded children) with an eight-year term of study provide an elementary education and the children vocational training.
There are also special secondary schools for children with disturbances of motor function and a special school for children who are multiply handicapped.
Preschool establishments for the deaf and hard of hearing, the blind, the mentally retarded and children with speech defects have been developing successfully in the past decades.
Prior to entering school all children who have reached six years of age must have a thorough medical examination by a team of specialists at their district children's polyclinics. This examination is compulsory for every child entering school. Children who have serious defects of vision, hearing or speech and who will find studying in a normal school too difficult are referred to a special school.
(From A Guide to English Scfiools by
Turrell Burgess)
Questions
1) What steps in regard to the education of handicapped children did the state take after the Great October Revolution?
2) What kinds of schools were established for this purpose?
3) What system of special education is developed at present?
4) Is medical examination compulsory for every child entering school?
Notes
1) handicapped - зд. страдающие недостатками (физическими или
умственными)
2) in accordance with - в соответствии с
3) retarded (children) - умственно отсталые (дети)
4) auxiliary school - вспомогательная школа
5) 2nd division hard of hearing - 2-я степень глухоты
6) motor function - двигательная функция
TEXT 3
CHILDREN'S THEATRES
A new type of theatre was born in the country: the children's theatre. At present over twenty million schoolchildren attend performances at children's theatres annually.
The theatres play an important role in the ideological and aesthetic education of children. Their productions touch upon the most burning problems of today; they present a truthful and realistic picture of life in modern times, they stage plays about the heroic past, shaping the child's aesthetic tastes.
The theatres are most influential in helping the schools to instil in the pupils an interest in and appreciation of literature's classical heritage. The theatres have a definite tradition in staging classical plays. There are special means of helping the school in the study of these plays after the children have attended a performance. Each theatre has its own thematic plan. Thus the Saratov Children's Theatre builds its classical repertoire according to a main theme: young people of times now past. Its classical repertoire includes The Insulted and Humiliated by Dostoevsky, A Profitable Position by Ostrovsky, Three Sisters by Chekhov and Shakespeare's Hamlet. The Moscow Central Children's Theatre's repertoire includes Dead Souls by Gogol, Boris Godunov by Pushkin and a stage version of Dickens' Oliver Twist.
Younger children prefer puppet shows. Here they are introduced to the treasures of folk and fairy tales of the peoples of Russia and the world. The State Puppet Theatre is actually an artistic and methodological centre for all of the country's puppet theatres.
The work of the children's theatres is closely linked to the schools. Every theatre has an educational section staffed by pedagogues. They take part in organizing school theatricals, drama clubs and special theatrical concerts; in a word, they help to bring the theatres directly to the schools.
Questions
1) What role does the children's theatre play in the ideological education of children?
2) How do theatres help the schools to instil in children an interest in literature's classical heritage?
3) Why is the State Puppet Theatre an artistic and methodological centre for all other puppet theatres?
4) In what way is the work of the children's theatres linked to the schools?
Notes
1) instil - внушать
2) The Insulted and Humiliated — «Униженные и оскорбленные»
3) A Profitable Position — «Доходное место»
TEXT 4
GREAT BRITAIN
The British Isles lying off the north-western coast of the continent of Europe are composed of two large islands, Great Britain and Ireland, and a number of small islands. The official title of the country is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The United Kingdom includes England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. England, the southern and central part of the island, forms the main part of the entire country. Wales lies on the mountainous peninsula in the west. Politically Wales is a part of England and has no independent government. Scotland is in the northern part of the island. Its original inhabitants are of Celtic origin. In the past Scotland was an independent kingdom and up to the present time maintains certain autonomy. Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom as an autonomous region with its own Parliament.
Great Britain is surrounded by water. It has an insular climate. The summers are cooler and the winters are warmer than in central Europe. The warm Gulf Stream washes the coasts of the British Isles and gives the country a mild climate. The climate on the continent is not so mild as that of England. The best season is spring. In the lovely month of May the weather is the finest.
The insular climate is also moister than the continental climate. It rains very often in England. In London, for instance, it rains more than a hundred and eighty days in the year, and in winter the brown London fog comes very often. The London fog "as thick as peasoup" 3 is an extraordinary thing.
Questions
1) What parts does Great Britain consist of?
2) What are the main islands of Great Britain?
3) Which season is the best in England?
4) Does it often rain in England?
Notes
1) insular - островной
2) the Gulf Stream - Гольфстрим
3) "as thick as peasoup" - «густой, как гороховый суп»
TEXT 5
NATURE'S BUILDING BLOCKS
What are atoms?
Over two thousand years ago, about 400 B.C., the Greek philosopher Democritus tried to figure out what the world is made up of and how it came to be the way it is. He came to the conclusion that all things are made up of tiny particles, too small to be seen. There are many kinds, he thought, and they are always moving about, sometimes combining, and sometimes separating again.
Democritus deserves tremendous credit for giving us this theory. In the past people believed in many ideas which new knowledge and experience later proved false.1 But all the discoveries of science in over two thousand years of work and study show that Democritus was right.
Investigations by chemists have shown that every chemical compound, such as salt or water, is made up of many tiny particles called molecules. In solids and liquids they are packed closely together. In gases they are spread out thin, with big spaces separating the molecules from each other. Each molecule in a compound is the same as all the other molecules in the same compound, but it is different from the molecules in other compounds. Since there are thousands of different compounds, there are thousands of different kinds of molecules, ranging from simple ones, like the molecules of salt or water, to very complicated ones found only in living things.
Further study has shown that the molecules themselves are made up of still smaller particles known as atoms. Although there are thousands of different molecules, there are only 103 different kinds of atoms. These 103 different kinds of atoms, known as the chemical elements, are the building blocks out of which all material things are made.
(From The Outline of Man's Knowledge
by Clement Wood)
Questions
1) What is the world made up of according to Democritus?
2) Did his theory prove right?
3) When and where did Democritus live?
4) What is every chemical compound made up of according to modern science?
Note
1) proved false — оказались ошибочными
TEXT 6
TAJ MAHAL
One of the sights of India is the tomb of the emperor Shah Jehan and his favourite queen. The tomb is the Taj Mahal. Its name means "gem of buildings".
The Taj Mahal is in Agra, India. It was built between three and four centuries ago.
A legend tells that the queen, who was called Mumtaz-i-Mahal, first saw this building in a dream. She saw it so clearly that she remembered it after she wakened. She told the emperor about it and he set to work at once to have it built. No one knows whether the story of the dream is true. We do know that an army: of workmen spent 22 years in building the Taj Mahal.
The tomb is tall. The tip of the dome reaches as high as an 18-storeyed building. The whole building is of white marble. In places the marble has been carved so that it looks like lace. Inside there is much carving. There is more of the marble lace. In addition, parts of the Koran, the sacred book of the Moslems, have been carved on the walls. In other places the walls are covered with flower designs. Coloured stones such as jasper1 and cornelian2 are set in the white stone.
The building would not be so beautiful if it were not in such a beautiful setting. Much of the ground around is paved with red sandstone. There are pools of quiet water that reflect the dome and the slender towers. Round about there is a beautiful garden.
Many people think that the Taj Mahal is the most beautiful build ing in-the whole world.
Questions
1) Where and when was the Taj Mahal built?
2) What does a legend tell?
3) How many years did an army of workmen spend in building the Taj Mahal?
4) What does the building of the Taj Mahal look like?
5) What can you say about a setting of the Taj Mahal?
Notes
1) jasper - яшма
2) cornelian – сердолик
TEXT 7
SWIMMING
Many animals can swim without being taught how. People are not so fortunate. They have to learn to swim. But it is very much worthwhile to learn to swim for three reasons: swimming is fun. It is a good exercise for building strong bodies. And being able to swim takes away most of the danger from boating, water skiing, and other water sports. There are four styles of sports swimming: freestyle (crawl), backstroke,1 breaststroke" and butterfly.
Swimming is so popular that many public swimming pools have been built. Many public beaches have been set up.
Swimming is one of the sports that make up the Olympic games. Swimmers from all over the world compete in these games.
It may seem strange that swimming was not included in ancient Olympic games, though people had known it long ago: Both in ancient Greece and Rome swimming was as important as reading. Soldiers often sailed to other lands and fought on seas too. They were taught swimming for life-saving.
As a sport swimming was practised in Japan. There swimming contests were held before the new era. Since-the 17th century it has been taught in schools. But the Japanese did not let foreigners into their country. That is why it were Europeans who developed swimming and made it a sport.
One of the earliest swimming competitions in Europe was held in 1515 in Venice. In 1538, the first swimming handbook was published. First swimming schools began to appear in the end of the 18th century. Swimmers trained and contested mostly in rivers, ponds and lakes, which was only possible in summer. In the 19th century covered pools appeared and swimming became very popular.
Many countries organized national swimming championships, and the first European championship was held in 1890. Six years later, swimming became the Olympic sport and in 1908 the International Swimming Federation was formed. Oddly enough, the first world championship was only held in 1973, or 65 years later!
Swimming as a sport was not popular in Russia. Training and competitions were only possible in summer and sportsmen could not achieve good results. The first swimming competitions in Russia were held in 1913 in Kiev.
Things changed after the Revolution. Swimming schools opened in Moscow in the 20s. And in the 30s first covered pools were built. Swimmers could train all the year round and they did well.
Regular swimming championships of Russia have been held since 1928. And since 1947 our swimmers have been taking part in international competitions. Many of them have achieved good results and set new records. Among them are G. Prozumenshchikova (Stepanova), S. Babanina, V. Bure, V. Salnikov and others.
Questions
1) Why is it worthwhile to learn to swim?
2) How many styles are there in swimming?
3) Where was swimming practised as a sport?
4) When did swimming become very popular?
5) Was swimming as a sport popular in Russia?
6) What famous swimmers do you know?
Notes
1) backstroke - плавание на спине
2) breaststroke - брасс, плавание брассом
КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА № 2
1 Прочитайте текст и письменно ответьте по-английски на вопросы, следующие за текстом.
2 Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых употреблены модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты.
3 Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых употреблены неопределенные местоимения some, any no, every и их производные.
4 Выпишите из текста все глаголы и образуйте от них причастия настоящего и прошедшего времени; переведите их на русский язык.
5 Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых употреблено причастие настоящего времени.
6 Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, в которых употреблены причастия прошедшего времени.
7 Поставьте глагол-сказуемое одного предложения из текста во все временные формы группы Perfect, произведя все необходимые смысловые изменения.
Образец: Не has just translated the text.
He had translated the text before the bell rang.
He will have translated the text by tomorrow.
8 Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык предложения, сказуемые которых употреблены в страдательном залоге.
9 Переведите письменно текст1 контрольной работы № 2. При переводе пользуйтесь англо-русским словарем.
TEXT 1
PERFECTION OF THE CONTENT OF PRIMARY EDUCATION
Soviet general education has benefited greatly from the modernization of the content of education and the transition to new curricula and syllabuses.
Over-the past decade the content of education was updated, hew: textbooks and teaching aids introduced, and the level of school education raised.
The more significant changes have taken: place in the primary school.
The tasks of primary education in the modern school are conditioned by the general objectives of universal secondary education and by the specific age characteristics of junior schoolchildren.
Today the primary school is part and parcel - in fact, the initial stage - of general secondary education. Therefore, its tasks are as follows: to impart to pupils the knowledge and the initial scientific-materialistic notions of nature and society; to use the study material and the entire process of instruction to enrich the pupils' consciousness, to stimulate their interest in learning, to cultivate skills and abilities; to prepare pupils for study in the next stage of the secondary school. The programme of primary school education, besides giving the pupils a certain amount of knowledge, skills and habits, introduces them to elementary scientific notions of nature and society, inculcates in them the skills and abilities essential to the further cognition of the world, imparts to them correct views on, and attitudes to, the world around them.
Instruction in every subject aims at the development of elements of scientific-theoretical thinking in junior schoolchildren.
Much emphasis is laid in the primary school on the moral, aesthetic and physical education of children, on' protecting their health.
Over the past fifteen years efforts to improve primary education resulted in a considerable shift of emphasis toward scientific education. This found its reflection in new syllabuses in mathematics, labour education and natural sciences.
The new syllabuses are based on a higher level of difficulty (but fully consistent with the abilities of junior schoolchildren), a faster rate of covering the study material and a greater proportion of theoretical knowledge. Observations have shown that following the introduction of the new syllabuses the pupils of the primary grades acquired a more thorough knowledge, and their intellectual level rose considerably.
Questions
1) The more significant changes have taken place in the primary school, haven't they?
2) What are the tasks of the primary school?
3) Does instruction in every subject aim at the development of elements of scientific-theoretical thinking in junior schoolchildren?
4) What is much emphasis in the primary school laid on?
5) What are the new syllabuses based on?
TEXT 2
THE CENTRAL SOVIET ARMY MUSEUM
In 1919, though the Civil War was still in full swing and the forces of counter-revolution and intervention had not been crushed, yet, an exhibition of the first trophies of the young Soviet Army was mounted on Moscow's Red Square. These were the standards of defeated White Guard regiments, their weapons, and equipment. There were also the famous machine-gun carts from Chapayev's units, armoured cars, revolutionary flags and revolutionary proclamations and posters. Subsequently all these war relics were exhibited in a specially created museum called "Life in the Red Army and Navy".
Today it is named the Central Soviet Army Museum. It has a great collection of items attesting to the gallantry and courage with which the Soviet fighting man so heroically defended his country against counter-revolution and intervention and crushed the nazis in the Great Patriotic War.
In 1965 the Museum moved into a fine new building specially erected for the purpose. Its vast exhibition is contained in 25 rooms and also outside in the grounds. Among the indoor exhibits there are the Council of People's Commissars Decree of January 15 (28), 1918, which Lenin signed to organize a Workers' and Peasants' Red Army; the weapons, decorations, and personal belongings of outstanding Red Army commanders of Civil War time, such as Frunze, Blukher, Budyonny, and Voroshilov; the first Soviet orders and medals; the first Red Army uniforms with their long greatcoats and pointed cloth helmets; specimens of Soviet-made weapons; and operational plans that have now passed into the history of strategy and warfare.
The most powerful impression is produced by the displays that deal with the history of the Great Patriotic War, an epic of mass gallantry and heroism of the Soviet people. The exhibition reflects such undying chapters of gallantry as the defence of the Brest Fortress and Leningrad, the epoch-making Battle of Stalingrad, the forcing of the Dnieper and many others.
The Victory Room displays the Soviet Victory Flag that was hoisted above the Berlin Reichstag on April 30, 1945. Besides photographs depicting the famous Victory Parade on Red Square, there are the nazi regimental standards that were cast down during the Parade at the foot of Lenin Mausoleum.
The phrase uOn Guard for the Motherland" sums up the display dealing with the Soviet Armed Forces of today. The visitor does not only see various weapons and equipment, but is also given an idea of the excellent training of the young men of the Soviet Armed Forces, the comradeship-in-arms1 between the Soviet Armed Forces and the brother armies of the socialist countries as well, a comradeship-in-arms that is on guard of peace and international security.
Questions
1) When was the first exhibition of the Museum opened?
2) What are the main items of it?
3) How does the Museum reflect heroism of the Soviet people during the Great Patriotic War?
4) What is the display of the Museum dealing with the Soviet Armed Forces of today?
Note
1) the comradeship-in-arms - братство по оружию
TEXT 3
COLLEGE LIFE IN ENGLAND
The University of Oxford is a collection of colleges. Some of these colleges were founded hundreds of years ago. The University is only an administrative centre which arranges lectures for all the students of the colleges, holds examinations and gives degrees.
Every college has students of all kinds; it has its medical students, its engineers, its art students, etc.
The Tutorial system is one of the ways in which Oxford and Cambridge differ from all other English universities. Every student has a tutor who plans his work. Each week some students come to see him and he discusses with them the work which they have done. This system has some advantages, but has often operated against progressive thinking in British universities because many tutors are reactionary and they try to have a great social and political influence on their students.
Other English universities called "modern" or "provincial"1 are located in large centres of industry. There are no tutorial systems there. These universities rely on lectures.
Very few children of the working people can be found among the students of all the British universities because the cost of studies is too high. According to official reports only 3 per cent of the whole number of students at the universities are sons and daughters of the working people.
The academic year in England is divided into three terms. Terminal examinations are held at the end of the autumn, spring and the summer terms. Final examinations are taken at the end of the course of studies. If a student fails in an examination he may be allowed to take the exam again. Only two re-examinations are usually allowed. For a break of discipline a student can be fined2 a sum of money, for a serious offence he may be expelled from the university.
British universities usually keep to the customs of the past. At Oxford University all the students wear long black gowns and students' caps. Undergraduates try to get old gowns so that people would think that they have been at Oxford for years. Without his or her gown no student is allowed to call on a tutor, to have dinner in the college dining-room or attend a lecture - where the gowns are rolled up and used as cushions.
Questions
1) In what way do Oxford and Cambridge differ from all other English universities?
2) What are advantages and disadvantages of the Tutorial system?
3) What kinds of English universities are called "modern"?
4) Can many children of the working people be found among the students at English universities?
5) How many terms is the academic year in England divided into?
6) How are the students of Oxford usually dressed?
Notes
1) provincial universities - университеты, находящиеся в крупных городах Великобритании (кроме Оксфорда и Кембриджа)
2) be fined- подвергаться штрафу
TEXT 4
BEGINNING OF ART IN BUILDING
Architecture is defined as that shaping art, of which the function is to express and arouse emotion by combinations of ordered and decorated form. Architecture as an art first appears in Egypt. Us two divisions here may be roughly described as the pyramid age and the age of the temples. The pyramids are among the oldest monuments in the world, and date from about 3000 В. C. They consist of vast conical masses of masonry,1 raised over a small tomb containing the sarcophagus of the pharaoh or monarch. The height of the oldest pyramid of Khufu was 480 feet 9 inches, and its base was 764 feet square, covering 13 acres.
Egyptian temples were at first tremendously massive, with great square pillars; soon graceful round pillars succeeded these, and grace became the keynote2 of the whole. Egypt built with stone; Babylon, having no stone, built with sun-dried bricks. Today, the tremendous architectural marvels of Babylon are huge formless mounds of sand on the plain. Such Babylonian marvels of antiquity as the eight-terraced tower of Bel,3 and the famous hanging gardens of Semiramis, remain as dim as legends today.
Classic Greek art developed three forms or orders of architecture - the Doric,4 the Ionic,5 and the Corinthian.6 The Doric, the simplest of all, had a simple fluted column, with a square capital above; its effect was massive simplicity. The Ionic had a slenderer column, with curved volutes7 in the capital, conventionalized8 from Egyptian lily-petals.9 The Corinthian, the most elaborate of the three, had a conventionalized acanthus-leaf pattern at the top. :
The typical Greek temple is a parallelogram, with columns at both ends or all around; the earliest form had columns only in front. The temple itself was always a small enclosure within the vast portico.
Among the most impressive remains throughout the rest of Greece are the temple of Parthenon at Athens, and the temple of Poseidon, or Neptune, which is the most perfect and best preserved of all the relics of classic antiquity.
Questions
1) What is architecture?
2) Where does architecture as an art first appear?
3) What was the greatest pyramid in Egypt?
4) What did Egyptian temples look like?
5) Why weren't Babylonian marvels of antiquity preserved?
6) What were three forms of classic Greek architecture?
7) What was a typical Greek temple?
Notes
1) masonry - каменная или кирпичная кладка
2) keynote - основной принцип, идея
3) tower of Bel - Вавилонская башня
4) the Doric - дорический
5) the Ionic - ионический
6) the Corinthian - коринфский
7) Volute - спираль, завиток
8) conventionalized - изображенный условно
9) lily-petals - лепестки лилии
TEXT 5
ТНЕ TYPICAL SEED PLANT
The common garden bean is a typical seed plant. The vegetable railed "bean" is the seed of the bean plant and is contained in a pod. This pod, with its seeds, is the fruit of the plant. The bean seed has two seedleaves, or cotyledons.1 that s ground a baby bean plant, or embryo. The cotyledons supply the embryo with food and act as a protective covering. If the seed is planted properly in soil and is watered, it will germinate, meaning a young bean plant will emerge from the seed planted This plant has roots, stems, and green leaves that have chlorophyll, enabling it to manufacture its own food.
The young plant grows rapidly, producing additional roots, stems, leaves, and finally blossoms. When the flowers appear the plant is ready to reproduce (produce offspring). Each bean flower has tiny yellowish pollen grains, which are transferred to its own female structure or that of another bean plant's flower. The pollen contains sperms or male cells, that bring about fertilization of the eggs, or female cells, which are in the ovary of the female structure. The fertilized egg develops into an embryo, while the rest of the egg becomes its seed. The ovary wall enlarges to become a pod, which is the fruit of the bean plant, and the whole life process begins again. A similar process takes place in the pine, spruce, apple, peach, oak, grass, and all other seed plants.
The major parts of a seed plant are roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, and fruit. Each of these structures plays an important part in the life of the plant. Some seed plants are annual,2 that is they complete their life cycle from seed to seed in one year; such plants include the bean, pea, and the grasses. Others are biennial,3 needing two years for the cycle to be completed, these include the beet, parsnip, and carrot. Many are perennial, living for many years; among these are the oak, pine, rose, and lilac. Although there are many variations in different species of seed plant, their principle structures are basically alike and perform the same functions. The roots anchor the plant in the soil and support it. They absorb water and mineral salts from the soil and pass them along to the conducting tubes in the stem to be carried to the leaves. Many roots also store food.
The leaves carry on the process of photosynthesis and are equipped to give off excess water in the form of water vapour. The roots, stems and leaves all are equipped to take in oxygen, which the plant uses to carry on all activities except photosynthesis.
The seed is the structure whereby seed plants can survive over long periods of time under unfavourable conditions. Many kinds of seeds can retain their ability to germinate for many years after they are formed, and need only moisture, warmth and soil to develop into a new plant.
Questions
1) What is a typical seed plant?
2) What does the bean plant consist of?
3) What part do the cotyledons play in the life of the bean plant?
4) What plants are called annual?
5) What plants are called biennial?
6) What are perennial plants?
7) What are the main functions of the roots?
8) What are the functions of the leaves?
Notes
1) cotyledon - семядоля
2) annual - однолетние
3) biennial – двухлетние
TEXT 6
METHODS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS
One can distinguish between two main procedures for a theoretical physicist. One of them is to work from the experimental basis. For this, one must keep in close touch with the experimental physicists. One reads about all the results they obtain and tries to fit them into a comprehensive and satisfying scheme.
The other procedure is to work from the mathematical basis. One examines and criticizes the existing theory. One tries to pinpoint the faults in it and then tries to remove them. The difficulty here is to remove the faults without destroying the very great successes of the existing theory.
There are these two general procedures, but of course the distinction between them is not hard-and-fast. There arc all grades of procedure between the extremes.1
Which procedure one follows depends largely on the subject of study? For a subject about which very little is known, where one is breaking quite new ground, one is pretty well forced to follow the procedure based on experiment. One must keep to the experimental basis if one is not to indulge in wild speculation that is almost certain to be wrong. One should not condemn speculation altogether. It can be entertaining and may be indirectly useful even if it does turn out to be wrong. One should always keep an open mind receptive to new ideas, so one should not completely oppose speculation, but one must take care not to get too involved in it.
With increasing knowledge of a subject when one has a great deal of support to work from, one can go over more and more towards the mathematical procedure.
Questions
1) What is the purpose of this article?
2) What are two main procedures for a theoretical physicist?
3) What is meant by working from the experimental basis?
4) What is meant by working from the mathematical basis?
5) What does the choice of the procedure depend on?
Note
-
extremes – крайности
TEXT 7
RADIUM
The early alchemists1 spent most of their time trying to change common metals such as lead into gold. Many people laughed at the idea. The alchemists had no clear notion of what they were doing. They simply tried all sorts of strange "recipes" and hoped to make the change take place by magic.
Now the scientists know that the alchemists were not entirely wrong. For it is possible for certain metals to change into others. The discovery and study of radium showed that this is true. The alchemists would be unhappy, however, because radium, which is thousands of times more expensive than gold, goes through a series of changes and becomes common lead.
Radium is one of the simple substances, or elements, that scientists call radioactive. Radioactive elements change all by themselves into other elements. As they do so, they send out powerful rays.-These rays can go through many substances that light cannot go through. The rays from radium, for instance, can go through flesh and be used to treat such diseases as cancer.
A common use of radium is in paint. Paint containing very tiny amounts of this element is used on the hands of clocks and watches to make them glow in the dark. Chemicals in the paint give out flashes of light when hit by rays from the radium.
Carelessly used radium can cause terrible burns. Supplies of it must be kept in special containers with thick lead walls.
Pure radium is a white metal. It is very heavy. But there is so little of it that no one has ever been bothered by its weight. Only a few pounds have been produced in the whole world.
Radium was discovered by the French scientists Pierre and Marie Curie. The story of their work is one of the really exciting chapters in the story of science.
Questions
1) What did the early alchemists spend most of their time on?
2) Is radium one of the radioactive elements?
3) What is a common use of radium?
4) What can carelessly used radium cause?
5) Whom was radium discovered by?
Note
1) alchemists - алхимики
TEXT 8
SALT
“He is the salt of the earth.”1 “He is not worth his salt.”2 Both of these are common sayings. They show that salt is an important substance. It is even more important today than in the past.
At times salt has been used as money. The word salary comes from sal, the Latin word for "salt". The Roman soldiers used to be paid partly in salt.
The Arabs used to believe that eating another person's salt meant that you would do him no harm. It was a bad sign if anyone refused to eat salt when he was a guest. In some parts of Africa it is still good manners, when you meet a friend, to let him lick your cake of salt.
There are superstitions about salt, too. Spilling salt is supposed to bring bad luck. But the person who spills the salt can keep the bad luck away if he throws a little over his left shoulder. Another superstition is that you can catch a bird if you sprinkle a little salt on its tail.
Salt is something which everyone has to have. We cannot live without it. Of course, most of us like the taste of salt, too.
Sea water has salt in it. But most of the salt we buy comes from deep in the ground. It comes from layers of rock salt there. The layers were formed when salty seas of long ago evaporated. Later, the salt was covered with other rocks.
It is not hard to get salt from the layers of rock salt underground. Mines can be dug down, and the salt taken out in blocks. Or water can be forced down through pipes to the salt and then pumped up again. The salt that has been dissolved in the water can easily be taken out of it.
Most of the salt we buy is in tiny crystals. Under a microscope they look like tiny cubes of glass.
Chemicals made from salt are used in the manufacture of rubber, and steel, and dyes, and dyes. Chemicals from salt are used to soften water and to bleach cloth. They help in scouring wool and making leather. The list could go on and on. A great many of our factories of today would be forced to shut down if there were no more salt.
Questions
1) How has salt been used at tunes?
2) What does the word "salary" come from?
3) Are there any superstitions about salt?
4) When were the layers of rock salt formed?
5) How are chemicals made from salt used?
Notes
1) "He is the salt of the earth" -Таких хороших людей, как он, мало.
2) "Не is not worth his sail." - Oн никчемный человек.