istoria_yazyka_-_shpory

1,The Old Germanic languages, their classification and principal features.

Germanic languages belong to a vast Indo-European family of languages. Dutch and Frisian are spoken in the Netherlands and Denmark; Norwegian in Norway, Swedish in Sweden, Icelandic in Iceland, Yiddish is spoken in Israel, English in the UK, Canada, the USA, Australia, New Zeeland, South Africa, India, etc. Some modern German languages are national literary languages; others are used with other national languages or are just local dialects. In the 1 century AD G. L. were spoken only in Germany and its surrounding territories as well as Scandinavia. According to the dialectal differences G. L. are classified into:

-North (Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese)

-West (High/Low German, Dutch, Frisian, English, Yiddish, Afrikaans)

-East (Gothic, Burgundian, Vangalic)

All Germanic tribes were passing through the stage of developing called barbarism. We learn about ancient teutons from Caesar, Plyny the Elder, etc. According to the Plyny Germanic tribes in the 1 century AD consisted of 5 groups:

-the Vindili (the Goths, the Burgundians, spoke East G.L.)

-the Ingevones (North-western Germ. territ., North Sea)

-the Istveons (the western part, the shores of Rhein)

-the Hermones (the southern part)

-the Hillavions (inhabited Scandinavia, spoke northern G. L.)

There were Old Scandinavian sources 2-3 AD, Old Icelandic 12 century, Old Norman 13, Old Danish 13, Old Swedish 13, Old English 7, Old Saxon 9, Old High German 8, and Old Dutch 12.

The main features of G.L. on 3 linguistic levels:

-phonetic

-grammatical

-lexical

Phonetic features-stress, accent. In Indo-European languages the accent was free or moving and tonic. Later in G.L. it became fixed on the 1 root syllable (except verbs with a prefix) and was dynamic.it had brought the reduction of endings.

2. The origin of the English Language

It is the story of 3 invasions and the Cultural Revolution. The language was brought to Britain by Germanic tribes like Angles, Saxons and Jutes(they conquered Britain in the 3 century). The English language originated from Anglo-Frisian dialect, which made part of the West Germanic group. First were Celtic tribes (Britons and Gaels), who spoke Celtic languages split into 2 groups:

-Gallo- Briton included Gaelic( is spoken in Gaul), British( was represented by Welsh=Cymry, Cornish existed till 18 century, Breton in Brittany in France)

-Gaelic included Irish (Ireland), Scots (Scotland), Manx (isle of Man)

In 55 BC began the Roman invasions under Julius Caesar. But permanent conquest of Britain began in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius. They colonized the country and established a great number of military camps which later on developed into English cities. They occupied vast territories including Edinburgh and Glasgow. Britain became roman profits. Latin spread over the country and countryside. The Romans ruled for almost 4 centuries. Then their legions were recalled from Britain to defend Italy from Goths.

In the mid 5 century AD started the A-S conquest, when Britain was invaded by Germanic tribes. The Britains fought against the conquers for 1, 5 century. The legendary figure of King Arthur belongs to that period. The Angles occupied the north of the Thames, the Saxons- south of the Themes, the Jutes- Kent. To the Celts the invaders were all Saxons. Anglii and Anglia appeared in the language. Gradually the invaders were called Anglecunes, their language- Englisc. By the year 1000 AD the country was known as England. Nowadays more than 100 most common words are of A-S origin (you, the, is, drinkan, etc). The Germanic settlements comprised 7 kingdoms: Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Northumbria, Mersia, Kent, and East Anglia. In 597 AD Christianity was brought. It was a gradual and peaceful process. The Cultural Revolution brought its huge Latin vocabulary and gave English the capacity to express abstract thoughts. Church words were brought from Greek, Latin (priest, bishop, none), Hebrew (pope, Psalter, Sabbath).

In the 9 century the Norman invasion. The Vikings is a collective term referred to all people thought to come from the North. Vic means bay, or from OE – a camp. The half of the country was in their hands. In 878 Alfred (the king of Wessex) got a victory over the Danish King of East Anglia. He started to rebuild monasteries, schools, introduced English in education. He started to translate Latin texts into English, wrote historical chronics.

Saxon place names have endings -ham, -ing, -stoure, -sted, -ton. The Danish origin words are –by, -wick, -throe, -toft, -thwait. About 9000 words used in Modern English came from Scandinavian: get, man, mother.

There were 4 principal dialects, spoken in A-S England

-Kentish- the speech of the Sutes

-West Saxon- in the south of the Thames, the most widely spoken

-Mercian- excluding Wales

-Northumbrian – North of Umbria.

Differences of dialects were not great; all English forms are usually from West Saxon.

3.The chronological division of the history of English

The history of the English language covers over 16 centuries. There was a well-known English scholar Henry Sweet, who proposed the division according to the state of the unstressed endings.

1.OE. The period of full endings, any vowel could be found in an unstressed ending: sinзan, sunu. The OE begins in the 5 century, embracing the years 500 to1100, the time when A-S invaded Britain, where Celts lived. The earliest writings belong to the year 700 AD. The end of the period is closed to the Norman Conquest (1066).

2.Middle English. The period of leveled endings. Vowels of unstressed endings have been leveled under the neutral vowel [ә] (шва), which is represented by [e]: singen, sune. ME dates to 1100-1500 (the introduction of printing, the end of the war of roses, the dec[k]ay of feudalism.

3.Modern English – the period of lost endings: sing, son.

-Early ME (1500- until the age of Shakespeare)

-Late ME.

This division is based on both phonetic and morphological features (weakening and loss of unstressed vowel sounds and grammatical morphemes). The transition from one period to another was very gradual and slow.

4. The English speaking world, varieties of English

Approximately 400 mln people speak English as their first language. English belongs to the indo-European family; it began to develop about 450 AD. It is the language of aviation, air travel control, summit meetings, internet, sport and pop-music, demonstrations. 75% of the world’s mail is in English. 60% of the world’s radio stations broadcast in English and more than half of the worlds periodicals are printed in English. It is the language of world movies. It is an official language in 44 countries. In many others it is the language of business, technology. Now Eng. words have started to become a part of other languages. In Sierra they speak Krio, 80% of words in the dictionary come from English. In India you can hear 14 languages (Hindi, Indian English, and local English, so on). English there is the neutral language, the same to everyone, no one is privileged. They still speak English in Africa. People there have more than 1000 local languages. They need English as a link language. After 1945 there was a shift from British E. to American E. America gained power in military, economy, politics.

5. The position of English and its role in the world. English is the major language of news and information in the world. It is the Language of business and government even in some countries where it is a minority language. It is the language of maritime communication and international air traffic control, and it is used even tor internal air traffic control in countries where it is not a native language.

In several countries, E is the sole or dominant language. It has that place in the UK, the USA, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland. All of these countries are former British colonies. In other countries, E is widely used. E is commonly used as a medium for the communication of information and news. Three quarters of all telex messages and telegrams are sent in E. 80 percent of computer data are processed and stored in E. 5000 newspapers are published in E. Even in many countries where E is a minority language, there is at least one newspaper in E. In many countries television news is broadcasted in E. E is a major language of international business, diplomacy, and science and the professions. E is also an official Language of many international organizations, including the United Nations, many professional organizations. It is frequently the Language of international conferences; and it is language of international athletics. E is often used in India, because it is neutral. It is a civil language and accepted by the society. In Singapore, E is a 2^nd language, but many companies are using it. 16 countries in Africa retained E. In Japan almost all junior high, high student school and collage study E. In China E language lessons are popular TV programs.

6. The OE vowel system. Major changes during the period. The OE vowel system: [i e a æ o u y] each vowel could be long and short. In the course of time G V proved to be more changeable than C. Long V proved to be more changeable than short one. All the V underwent positional changes due to assimilation, the most important are: 1. I-mutation or palatal mutation: the mutation of the root, back or open V to a front one by a following i/j, ex.: kopjan (o-open) changed into cepan. 2. In dialects there is happened OE breaking: it is diphthongization of short V before certain C clusters. It is the V a, e which changed into ae before clusters: r, l, h + C, h-final; e into eo before r, l, h + C, h-final. 3. In the 9^th century V were lengthened (lengthening) before the clusters: nd, ld, mb, ex.: bindan-bi:ndan-bind (в первом случае Iкраткая, во втором долгая).

7. Word order in OE. WO in the OE sentence was relatively free. The position of words in the sentence was often determined by logical and stylistic factors rather than by grammatical constraints. But the freedom of WO and its seeming independence shouldn’t be overestimated. The WO could depend on the communicative type of the sentence, there existed 3 main patterns, they are: 1. SPO₁ (O₂); 2.SOP; 3.PSO (S-subject, O-object, P-predicate). 1. in non dependent clauses or in main clauses. Unless they opened with an adverb, if there was an adverb it was changed. 2. Occurred when the O was pronoun or it was used in dependent clause. 3. chiefly in questions or in declarative sentences opening with the adverb. Different types of WO could be used in similar syntactical conditions. It appears that in many respects OE syntax was characterized by a wide range of variation and by the co-existence of various, sometimes even opposing, tendencies.

8. The Great Vowel Shift.is a series of changes of long vowels betw 14-17c.Every long vowel&some diph.were shifted&the pronouniat.of all the words with this sounds changed.GVS wasn’t followed by any regular spelling changes;the modific.in pronounc.of w.wasnt reflected in their written form.The GVS can be regarded as a process of 2stages: 1. [i:,u:] became diphthongs and most of V showed the process of narrowing; 2. There were appeared the diphthongs [ei] into [ai] and [au] into [əu].

GVS didn’t bring about any new phonemes because all the V which were resulted from GVS were already existed, but they were found in other classes of words. The GVS didn’t add any new sounds to the V system, every V which developed under the shift can be found in late ME. The changes in pronunciation of numerous E words, resulting from GVS, had never been supported by the corresponding spelling reforms.

9.Consonant changes in the history of E.

In OE there were no affricates and no sibilants(∫, t∫, З dЗ) except( s,z). in all Ger. lang. at an early stage of their independent history most consonants were lengthened after a short vowel before [j] – the process is known as West Germanic “doubling” of consonants satjan – settan(bedd, mann) these long consonants disappeared in ME and the phonemic opposition was lost. English consonants were more stable than vowels. The sonorous( m, n, l), the plosives( p, b, t, d) & k, g in most positions haven’t been subjected to any noticeable changes. {З}appeared on the boundary between the OE & the ME, came from French & is the youngest consonant. We evidence palatalisation( softening of the back lingual consonants) – kild, scip, sceal; elision –dropping, omitting of a letter: G Gans – OE Зos, G uns – OE us, mæjden – mæden(maiden). In the ME the sound [w] was lost: hwa – who, hwom – whom; [h] disappeared in combinations with initial hl( half –laf(loaf)), hr(hra∂e – rather), kn is pronounced as n – knight,cnawan( know). At the beginning of the NE period the sound [r] disappeared in the final position or before consonants as a result the preceding vowel lengthened – ME a – NE a: bar, star, car; o – o: door, lord; a: - eə care, dare; o: - uə poor, moor. In the 17^th – 18^th words with h that was denoted by the gh combination, the sound h disappeared & lengthened the preceding vowel – bought, thought. In OE we have metathese( permutation, the process of interchanging sounds in a word, as in rinnan – irnan(run), ascian – axian(ask) & we have assimilation wif-man – wimman. In the loan-words of Roman origin adopted in the ME & the ENE the stress fell on the final syllable & was moved closer to the beginning of the word & the changes happened due to the reciprocal assimilation. In the OE f,v,s,z,∂,Ө were allophones – in intervocal position appeared as voiced, otherwise were voiceless. In the ME they became independent.- ris[s] – risan[z]. [j] &[y] developed into [i] & [u] respectively; [x’] [x] developed into [i] & [u] respectively& formed glides of diphtongs or lengthened the preceding vowel – ^OEniht – ^MEnight – ^LMEni:t - ^NEnait.in final position x changed into f ^MErough( ru:x) - ^NErough. In final position and before consonants j & r changed into vowels but in initial retained the same rechen – reach, yeer – year.in the 16^th a new vowel appeared [ɔ:] in the following cases: i+r- fir,sir; u+r - fur,burn; o+r after w worm; e+r – fern.

10. I -mutation

Long vowels proved to be more changeable than short ones. The most important change was umlaut or palatal mutation. Mutation is a change in a vowel sound brought by a sound in the following syllable. The mutation of a root back or open vowel to a front one by a following

i or j is called i-mutation. I –mutation affected all the Germanic languages but Gothic. OE stressed vowels changed into back or more narrow under the influence of i (j) in the next syllables (regressive assimilation). The result was the rise of the new phonemes y, y: but disappeared in early ME.

ǎ > e sandian – sendan(send)

æ>e sætian – settan(set)

ā > æ hālian – hælan (heal)

ü > y fullian – fyllan (fill)

ō > ē wopian – wepan (weep), dohtor – dehter (daughter)

The approximate date of the change was the 5-6^th c. They are not many in English and can be find both in word changing and word formation: man-men, louse-lice, old-elder; full-fill, stong-strength, tale-tell, food-feed.

22. Changes in the vocabulary system in ME

The period that changed the etymological structure of E to a very great extent as well as in grammar was the ME that brought about radical changes, when no fewer than 10,000 words were borrowed from French and about 900 from Scandinavian ousting native words. The Norman conquest of 1066 introduce Fr.-E bilingualism into England & paved the way for a massive borrowing of Fr. words into E. voc. Most of the newcomers have stayed in E.& became indispensable to present – day E:Scandinavian husband,happy,wrong,anger/Frenchbeauty,war,peace,dinner,dress,large. The loans have been completely assimilated that they are difficult to recognize as alien elements. As a result there appeared a great number of new coinages in which native & foreign morphemes are combined in one word, forming hybrids: beauty (Fr) + ful(E),special(Fr) + ly(native). French borrowing continued to enrich the English vocab.after the M ages but the process became less active. Some of this bor. Are not completely assimilated&betray their foreign origin phon. or graphically (policy, police, Champagne).Another language which made a large contribution to the E.voc.was Latin. The 14^th & 15^th were abundant in Latin borrowing (Renaissance period).There was a strong tradition of using L in all fields of knowledge. The educated people used L to communicate with each other. Among L loans we find terms relating to law, science, medicine, literature ( history,index,popular,legal).In EME over 90% of the lexicon was of native E origin. By the end of the ME period this proportion had fallen to around 75%.

12. The OE noun system & its further changes.

OE was a synthetic language with a complex nominal system.

The Indo-European noun had a three-element structure, namely root – stem-building-suffix – ending cud – n – y. In Germanic the stem-building suffixes generally disappeared, falling together either with the root or with the inflexion. The Germanic structure of n. includes 2 elements: root and ending. The OE noun fell into several types of declension, called stems:a-(M.N[hus-house), o-(jo,wo,F), u-(M,F), i-(M,F,N) stems make up stong dec. & are called vocalic stems; n-stem & root-stem( ending in other consonants) are considered to be consonant stems & represent weak dec. The absence of the stem-building suffixe means that the endings were joned immediately to the root & the inflexion included the i-element it caused mutation in this class of words; manis – men. The a-stem made the largest group 7 served as a model for the whole class system as time went on. The ME plural comes from plural N –as inflexion which turned into NE – (e) s.G. singular –es turned into’s (possessive), the forms children, oxen, brethren comes from the OE n-steem. Gender was short lived because it wasn’t supported either semantically or formally. It disappeared in the first half of the ME period widuwa-widowe-widow. Number has proved to be the most. stable gram. category .in NE noun has –es, while in OE it depended on the stem of the noun. ME changes: the division into stems & gender disappear, the four-case system is simplified to a two-case: OE – Nom, Dat, Acc, Gen. ME – Common case, Genitive or Possessive. Starting with the late ME the noun system resembles the ME system to a very great extent.

13.The OE adjectives & its further development in ME

The adj in OE could change for number, gender & case. Those were dependent grammatical categories or forms agreement of the adj-s with the noun it modified or with the noun it modified or with the subject of the sentence-of the Adj-ve was a predicate. Like nouns, adj-s had 3 genders & 2 numbers. The category of case in adj-s differed from that of nouns: in addition to the 4 cases of nouns they had 1 more case, Instrumental. It was used when the adj-s served as an attribute to a noun in the Dat case expressing an instrumental meaning. Most adj. in OE could be declined in 2 ways: according to the weak & to the strong declension. The formal difference between the declension, as well as their origin, were similar to those of the noun declensions. The strong & weak declensions arose due to the use of several stem-forming suffixes. There developed a set of endings of the strong declension mainly coinciding with the endings of a-steam of nouns for adj-s in the Masc & Neut & of o-steam- in the Fem. Some endings in the strong declension of adj-s have no parallels in the noun paradigms; they are similar to the endings of pronouns. As for the weak declension, it uses the same markers as n-stem of nouns except that in the Gen pl the pronominal ending –ra is often used of the weak –ena. The choice of the declension was determined by a number of factors: the syntactic function of the adj, the degree of comparison & the presence of noun determiners. The adj. had a strong form when used predicatively & when used attributively without any determiners. The weak form was employed when the adj was preceded by a demonstrative pronoun or the Gen case of personal pronouns.

In the course of the ME period the adj underwent greater simplifying changes than any other part of speech . It lost all its grammatical categories with the exception of the degrees of comparison. By the end of the OE period the agreement of the adj with the noun had become looser & in the course of early ME it was practically lost. Though the grammatical categories of the adj reflected that of the noun, most of them disappeared even before the noun lost the reflexive distinctions. The 1^st category to disappear was Gender , which ceased to be distinguished by the adj in the 11^th . The instr. case had fused with the Dat by the end of OE , distinctions of other cases in Early ME was unsteady, as many variant forms of different cases, which arose in Early ME, coincided. In the 13^th case could be shown only by some variable adj-ve endings in the strong declension, towards the ehd of the century all case distinctions were lost. The strong & weak forms of adj were often confused in Early ME texts. The use of a strong form after a demonstrative pronoun was not common, though according to the existing rules, this position belonged to the weak form. In the 14^th the difference between the strong & weak form is sometimes shown in the sg with the help of the ending –e.

14.Degrees of comparison in OE. & their futher development.

Most adj. distinguished between 3 degrees of comparison: positive,comparative,superlative.The regular means to form the comparative & the superlative from the positive were the suffixes –ra & -est/ost. Sometimes suffixation was accompanied by an interchange of the root-vowel. Eald-ieldra-ieldest(old), lon3-len3ra-len3est(long). The mutation of the root-vowel was caused by i-umlaut in Early OE. At that stage the suffixes were either –ira, -ist or –ora, -ost. In the forms with –i the root-vowel was fronted & made narrower, later –i was lost & weakened to –e. In ME the degrees of comparison could be built in the same way as in OE, only suffixes had been weakened to-er, -est & the interchange of the root-vowelwas less common than before. Since most adj. with the sound alternation had parallel forms without it, the forms with the interchange soon fell into disuse.(Long, lenger, lengest & long, longer, longest.) The alternation of root-vowel in Early NE survived in the adj. old, elder, eldest, where the difference in meaning from older, oldest, made the formal distinction essential.Also alternation are found in the pairs farther & further. The most important innovation in the adj. system in the ME period was the growth of analytical forms of the degrees of comparison. The new system of comparisons emerged in ME , but the ground from the OE adverbs with adj. & participles. In ME, when the phrases with ME more, most became more & more common, they were used with all kinds of adj., regardless of the number of syllables & were even preferred with mono- & disyllabic words. The 2 sets of forms, synthetic & analytical, were used in free variation until the 17^th & 18^th , when the modern standart usage was established. It appears that in the course of history the adj. has lost all the dependent grammatical categories but has preserved the only specifically adjectival category-the comparison. The adj. is the only nominal part of speech which makes use of the new, analytical, way of form-building.

15. The OE personal pronouns.Eng.pron.fell under the same classes like E.Mod.Pr:Personal,Demonstr.,Poses.,Relative

OE personal pronouns had 3 persons, 3 numbers in the 1^st & 2^nd peron(2 numbers-in the 3^rd ) & three genders in the 3^rd p.The pronouns of the 3rdp., having originated from demonstrative pronouns, had many affinities with the later. In OE, while nouns consistently distinguished between 4 cases, personal pronouns began to lose some of their case distinctions: the forms of the Dat case of the pronouns of the 1^st & 2^nd p. were frequently used instead of the Acc; in fact the fusion of these 2 cases in the pl. was completed in the WS dialect already in Early OE , in the sg. usage was variable, but variant forms revealed the same tendency to generalize the form of the Dat for both cases. The Gen. case of personal pronouns had 2 main applications: like other oblique cases of noun-pronouns it could be an object, but far more frequently it was used as an attribute or a noun determiner , like a possessive pronoun. Though forms of the Gen case were employed as possessive pronouns, they cannot be regarded as possessive pronouns proper (that is, as separate class of pronouns). The grammatical characteristic of these forms were not homogeneous. The forms of the 1^st & 2^nd p. were declined like adj. to show agreement with the nouns they modified, while the forms of the 3^rd p. behaved like nouns: they remained uninflected & did not agree with the nouns they modified. The oblique cases of personal pronouns in combination with the adj. self could also serve as reflexive pronouns.

23. Changes in vocabulary in New E.(1500-1800)

There is no consensus about the beginning of the period of NE. Some consider say around 1400/1500, others-around 1500, to mark its beginning. But many consider the advent of the printing revolution as a determining factor.Printing played a major role in forming the norms of spelling & pronunciation,in providing more opportunities for people to write.As a result, more books were published,providing reliable evidence of the development of the language.Also in the 16^th cent, scholars began seriously to talk about their language, making observations of grammar,vocabulary& style.

The period of “Renaissance”(middle of the 15^th cent.until around 1650) characterized by a interest in the classical languages& literatures,development in sciences & arts.Also It includes important scientific discoveries,exploration of Africa, Asia & the Americas. All these factors had a major impact on the English,especially on its vocabulary.Writers began to borrow words from other European languages to express new concepts & techniques.Furthermore, thousands of Latin & Greek words came in fields such as medicine & theology.

The influx of foreign vocabulary attracted bitter criticism from purists, who opposed the new terms bcs they interfered the development of native English vocabulary.Some attempted to revive little known words from English dialects;they also wanted to bring the new learning within the reach of the English public, soon as to make the Engl. fit not only for the street but also for the library. However, their efforts were not enough to stem the influx of new words. In fact, the increase in foreign borrowings is the most distinctive feature of the Renaissance for English.

It is generally agreed that the 2 most important influences on the development of the engl.language during the last decades of the Renaissance are the works of W.Shakespeare(1564-1616) & the King James Bible of 1611.The Shakespearean impact on English was primarily in the area of the lexicon, because his poems & plays introduced or popularized thousands of new words in the language. The King James Bible was appointed to be read in churches throughout the kingdom. Its influence on the population & on the language as a whole was therefore far-reaching.

The period between 1530 & the Restoration in 1660 it was the fastest lexical growth in the history of language. In addition to massive borrowing, there were also a great many semantic changes, as old words acquired new meanings. By the end of the 17^th cent., many critics felt that engl.was changing too rapidly & randomly.

15. OE verb was a highly inflected part of speech.V were finite&nonfinite All its gram categories were expressed with the help of inflections. All the forms of the verb were synthetic as analytical forms were only beginning to appear. Gram categories:

-Tense (present, past)

-Mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive)

-Person (1^st, 2^nd, 3^rd)

-Number (sing, pl)

The verb-predicate agreed with the subject of the sentence in 2 gram categories: number and person. Person distinctions were neutralized in many positions. Person was consistently shown only in Present tense of the indicative mood sing.

Morphological types:

-Strong(300) – 7 classes (now irregular verbs)

-Weak(900) – 3 classes with different stem-suffixes (now regular)

-Preterit-present(12) (now modals)

-Anomalous(4) (beon-to be, gan-to go, don-to do, willan-will) – changed gram forms by changing roots (suppletive form buildig)

16. Strong Verbs.300 in OE.

-The past tense is formed by changing the root vowel. (risan-ras)

-Participle 2 is formed by -en, accompanied in some cases by the change of the root vowel. (takan-taken, beran-boren)

-Strong v referred to Indo-European type. So they built past forms by ablaut (gradation – change of the root vowel)

-They were root words (not derivatives)

-Non-productive

-There were 4 principle parts: infinitive, past sing, past pl, participle2

Strong v were traditionally subdivided into 7 classes, depending on the type of vowel change. But all of them had the same endings: -an for the infinitive, no ending for the Past sing, -on for the Past pl, -en for Participle 2. Some of the strong classes were less regular than the others and consisted of small subclasses. As the time went on, many strong v transformed into weak. (Help, bake, laugh, bark)They began to form Past and Participle with the dental suffix instead of vowel gradation.

In ME the final syllables of the stems were weakened. (OE -an, -on, -en were all reduced to ME -en) In early NE most of them were lost in the infinitive and Past pl, but was sometimes preserved in Participle 2. In ME and ENE the root vowels in the principle forms of all the classes of the stong v underwent the regular changes of stressed vowels. The distinction between Past sing and pl was removed by weakening of the ending -on. Some strong v dropped out of use owing to the changes in the vocabulary.

17. Weak V.There were 900(3/4 of all v). The number of weak v was constantly growing since all new v derived from other stems were conjugated weak. Weak v are often derivatives from nouns, adj, strong v (talu- tellan, full-fullan, sittan-settan). They had 3 principle parts: infinitive,past and participle 2. Weak v refer to the German type. There were 3 classes. But class 2 deserves the special attention as it serves as a pattern for all newly produced or borrowed words starting from OE period. The past tense is formed with the dental suffix d/t (lician – licode, cepan – cepte). Participle 2 is also fomed with the help of this suffix (cepan-cepte, lufian-lofod). The significant element is the suffix o preceding the dental suffix in the past or participle 2. Then o transformed into e. (OE -ode, EME –ede, LME –ed, NE –d/t).

The evolution of weak v in ME and ENE reveals a tendency towards greater regularity and order. ME – 2 classes of weak v.

18. Preterite-present v. Originally their Present tense forms were Past tense forms. Later these forms acquired a present meaning but preserved many formal features of the Past tense. Most of the v had new Past tense forms built with the help of the dental suffix. Some of them also acquired the forms of the verbals: Participles and Infinitives. Most of the verbs didn’t have a full paradigm and were in the sense defective. They were inflected in the Present like the Past tense of strong v: the forms of the 1^st and 3^rd Past pl were identical (had no ending). Yet, unlike strong v they had the same root-vowel in all the persons. In the Past they were inflected like weak v: the dental suffix+the endings -e, -est, -e. Before the shift of meaning and time-reference the would-be preterite-presents were strong v. (The prototype of “can” may be referred to Class 3)

In OE there were 12 pret-present v. 6 of them have survived in Mod E (OE āg> NE owe; cunnan, cann> can; dear(r)> dare; sculan, sceal> shall; magan, mǽg> may; mōt> must). Most didn’t indicate actions, but expressed a kind of attitude to an action denoted by another verb, an Infinitive that followed the preterite-present.

19. The rise of the perfect forms.

The main source of the Perf form was the OE possessive construction, consisting of the verb habban (NE have), a direct object & Part II of a transitive verb. The meaning of the contruction was: a person (the subject) posessed a thing (the object), which was charact. by a certain state resulting from a previous action(the participle). The participle, like other attributes, agreed with the noun-object in Number, Gender & Case.

The other source of the Perf forms was the OE phrase consist. of the link-verb beon & Part II of intransitive verbs.

The participles had lost their forms of agreement with the noun, the places of the object & the participle in the contsruction with haven changed: the Participle usually stood close to the verb have & was followed by the object which refferd now to the analytical form as a whole – instead of being governed by have. In the Perf form the auxiliary have had lost the meaning of possession & was used with all kinds of verbs, without restriction

For a long timePerf forms were used as synonyms of the Simple Past.

20. The rise of the passive forms.

The analytical passive forms developed from OE verb phrases consisting of OE beon (NE be) & weoröan (become) & Part II of transitive verbs. OE beon was used as a link-verb with a predicate expressed by Part II to denote a state resulting from a previous action, while the construction with OE weorböan indicated the transition into the state expressed by the participle. The participle, which served as predicative to these verbs, in OE agreed with the subject in number & gender. Now it could express not only a state but also an action. The new Pass forms had a regular means of indicating the doer of the action or the instrument with the help of which it was performed.

In Early NE P.Voice.Continued to extend its application.

P.f. began to be built from verbs associated with dif. Kinds of objects. In the beginning it was common for impersonal sentences 18, 19th cent. – high productivity of P.Voice soon continued its new verb paradigm – Gerund and the Continuous.

21. The OE vocabulary its etymological characteristics.

The OE vocab. was almost purely Germ.;except for a small number of borrowings, it consisted of native words inherited from PG or formed from native roots & affixes. Native OE words can be subdivided into etymological layers coming from dif. Hist. periods. The 3 main layers are: com. Ind.Euor. words, com.Germ.words,specifically OE words. Words belonging to the com. IE layer constitute the oldest part of the OE vocab.we find names of some natural phenomena, plants & anim, agric. terms, names of part of the human body, terms of kingship, verbs denote the basis activities of man, adj-s of most essential qualities, this layer includes pers. and demonstartive pronouns & most numerals.(twa-two,beaan-to be,mone-moon,min-my,sunu-son)The common Germ. layer incl. words which are shared by most Germ. languages, but do not occur outside the group.

Semantic-ly these words are connected with nature, sea & everyday life. The 3rd etymological layer of native words can be defined as specially OE, that is words which do not occur in other Germ. or non-Germ. lang. They’re few, if we incl. here only the words whose roots haven’t been found outside Eng.(brid-bird,hlaford,made of half-loaf)

24. Main types of word-form In OE.

According to their mortpological structure OE words fell into 3 main groups:1)simple w.-one root-morpheme(singan,land)

2)derived w-1 root-morpheme&1 more affixes(be-ginnan,ge-met-ing(meeting))3)compound-more than 1 root-morph.(mann-cynn{mankind}

OE employed 2 ways of word-formation:derivation&word-composition 1)Derived words built with the help of affixes: prefixes and suffixes, distinguished by sound interchanges and word stress Prefixation was very popular (some sprang in PG & OE from prepositions and adverbs).Prefixes were widely used with verbs, but less productive with other parts of speech.

Most frequent & prod.prefixes: (a-;be;for-;fore-;ofer-,un-).Un-with nouns & adj.,the rest with verbs. Prefix-modified the lexical meaning of the word(ge-boren,ungeboren;born-unborn).Suffixes-modified lex.meaning + could refer it to another part of speech,were mostly applied in forming nouns&adj.seldom verbs.Sources of OE suffixes: old stem-suffixed(lost their productivity); non-productive suf.; deriviation suf, new suf. (developed from root-morphemes in Late PG & OE from morph. simplication). Word-composition in OE was more productive in nominal parts of speech than in verbs.Components (steem of nouns,adj,verbs+noun)noun+noun(mann-cynn)

25. French loans in English

The FR was brought to England by the Norman conquerors.The Roman rules spoke a variety of Fr,known as Anglo-Norman.In the 13-14 Eng was exposed to a new wave of Fr.At the initial stage of penetration Fr words were restricted to some varieties of E.:-the speech of aristocracy,

-middle class,who came into contact both with the rules&the ruled;

-educated people of South-East.The total number of Fr.borrowings exceeds the number of borrowings from any other lang.The majority

Of Fr loans adopted in ME were first recorded in the texts of 14 c.Chaucer’s vocablurary.Fr loans of ME period are usually described accordin to semantic spheres: government&administration

(authority,country,power,court,people),titles&ranks(baron,duke,lady,prince),military(captain,army,peace,enemy,arms,battle,)law(crime,justice),religion(clergy,pray,saint),house,furniture(curtains,cussions,mansion),entertainment(leisure,pleasure)Terms for emotionastates:disease;joy;passion;desire;jealousy;ambition arrogance; Clothing&ornamentation:blouse;coat; gown;pearl; button; scissors; brush; mirror; towel)Food&cooking: boil; fry; roast dinner; supper, sugar; spice)Fr influence led to different kinds of changes in the vocabulary:1)there were mainly innovations;2)replacement;3)co-existance.

26. Scandinavian(900 words)

The 2nd major source of loanwords to OE were the Scandinavian words introduced during the Viking invasions of the 9th and 10th centuries.In addition to a great many place names,these consist mainly of items of basic vocabulary.The Vikings spoke Old Norse.In the beginning Scan loan-words were dialectally restricted.Later due to dialect mixture,they penetrated into other parts of lang.space.The number of Scan loan words were higher in Northen dialects.Some loans died out or were retained in local dialects(kirk-church).It’s difficult to define the semantic spheres of Scn loans;they mostly pertain to everyday life,but the earliest loan-words deal with military&legal matters:types of ships,nife(knife), lagu(law), takan(take);everyday words: bag.cake,happy, ill,die,happen. Vocabulary changes due to Scan.ifluence proceeded in differ.ways:replacement by Sc.words(hie-they,niman-take) innovations(without replacing-fellow,law).Today it’s difficult to distinguish Scan.loans from native words:the only criteria:the consonant cluster[sk]-Scn-sky,skill;OE[sk]modified to [sh]-fisc-fish,scip-ship.The words give,get,gift are included by some scholars in the lists of Scn loans-words on the basis of phonetical modification of native words.gyven,geten were Norman varients of the words whose pronouciation was influenced by Sc.,nevertheless,they are native words.

27. Latin loans in English

The L continued to be used in England through the OE&ME periods in religious rituals,in legal documnts,in the texts of a scientific&philosophical character.The main spheres of L-church,the law courts&academic activities.

Influence of Roman occupation&introduction of christanity.Several layers of introductions:

10)west-Germ tribes brought from the continent when they came to settle Br.2)latin words could b transmitted by the Romanised Celts.

Spheres:trade(merchant-caupo,mango(L)-ceapian,mangian(OE); money:pondo-pund(pound);products :vinum-win(OE)wine,caseus-ciese(cheese);domestic life-cytel(kettle),cuppe(cup);military-vallum-weal(wall);religion:apostolus-apostol,candela-candle.

After the introducrion of Christanity many nonastic schools were set up in Br.Borrowings connected with education:school-schola(L)-schol;master(teacher:magister(L)-ma3ister.New words indicated new objects&new ideas:lily,cancer,plaster,camel,place,turn.

28. Main peculiarities of OE poetry.

The first English manuscripts dating around 700 were glossaries, some small poems. The most important of them was Beowulf. It is a heroic poem and has about 3000 lines. This poem represents the peculiarities of OE poetry rather vividly. The poem is written in the shape of a verse, consisting of 2 columns with a pause between them, called caesura [сизь’юэрэ]. Main peculiarities of OE poetry are:

1. The absence of rhyme, bur there was rhythm

2. The different amount of syllables in lines

3. The same amount of stressed syllables in each line.

4. The use of synonymic groups. Vast synonymic groups provided lexical diversity of a poetic text.

5. It has god alliteration- the repetition of the same consonants within one line. Assonance was much rarer (the repetition of the same in successive stressed syllables of the words, following one another)

6. There was a pause in the middle of the line

7. Kennings- decorative compound words or poetic word combinations, which describe an object indirectly. For example, wudu bundene (связанные доски- корабль)

29. Grimm’s law

It is known as the First consonant shift.

It became known to the public in 1882. The essence of this law is that Indo-European plosives underwent certain changes in Germanic languages.

1.Indo-European plosives p, t, k changed into voiceless fricatives f, Ө, h. (pientic – five, cardia – heart)

2.Indo-European voiced plosives b, d, g changed into Germanic voiced plosives p, t, k. (Latin: duo- Gothic: twai- English: two, Latin: ego- OE: ic(я))

3.Indo-European voiced aspirated plosives bh, dh, gh correspond to Germanic voiced plosives without aspiration. (Sanskrit: bhratar – E.brother, Sanskrit: ghosti – E: gast)

These changes were stretched for centuries before our era and received the name “the First consonant shift». Later on in West Germanic languages there appeared smaller languages (High and Low German), distinguished by the 2 consonant shift, which occurred comparatively recently, between the 6-7 centuries AD.

-P- in H.G. appears as –pf- or –ff- after vowels (pepper- pfeffer)

-T- appears as –ts,after vowels –ss- (two-zwei, water- wasser)

-D- as –t-(dance - tanzen, drink – trinken)

30. Verner’s Law

Important series of consonant changes in Proto Ger was discovered in the 19^th by a Danish scholar,Carl Verner. They are known as Verner’s Law. Varner’s Law explains some correspondences of consonants which seemed to contradict Grimm’s Law & were for a long time regarded as exceptions. According to VL all the early PG voiceless fricatives (f, x) which arose under Grimm’s Law & also (s) inherited from PIE, became voiced b/n vowels if the preceding vowel was unstressed: in the absence of these conditions they remained voiceless. The voicing occurred in early PG at the time when the stress was not yet fixed on the root-morpheme. Varner’s Law accounts for the appearance of voiced fricative or later modifications (d) in the place of the voiceless (3) which ought to be expected under Grimm’s Law. In later PG, the phonetic condition that caused the voicing had disappeared: the stress had shifted to the 1^st syllable.

As a result of voicing by Varner’s Law these arose an interchange of consonants in gram-l forms of the word. Part of the forms retained a voiceless fricative, while others acquired a voiced fricative.(in early PG) both consonants could undergo later changes in the OG lan-es, but the original dif-ce b/n them goes back to the time of movable word stress and PG voicing. The interchanges can be sent in the principal forms of some OG verbs, though most of the interchanges were leveled out by analogy.

31. Reduction of unstressed inflexions and its impact on the grammatical structure of E.

Extensive changes of vowels are one of the most remarkable features of English linguistic history. In OE the number of vowels in unstressed position reduced. In unaccented syllables long vowels were shortened & the opposition of long-short was neutralized. In ME & NE the direct of the evolution was the same as before. The tendency towards phonetic reduction operated in all the periods of history. In OE 5 short vowels were distinguished in unstressed position e/I, a. o/u. LME had only 2 vowels in unaccented syllables: ə, i, This means that phonemic contrasts were had been practically lost. The vowels ə and i is an important mark of the ME period which distinguished from OE with its great variety of unstressed vowels and from the NE when the [ə] was dropped. The loss of the final ə started in the North, spread to the Midlands and reached the Southern areas by the 15^thc. In the London dialect of Chaucer’s time it was very unstable and could be easily missed out before a following initial vowel or when required by rhythm. The [e] was understood as a means of showing the length of the vowel in the preceding syllable and was added to words that didn’t have it before-^OEstan-^MEstoon-^NEstone; ^OErad-^MErode-^NErode. While the OE unstressed vowels were thus reduced & lost, new unstressed appeared in borrowed words or developed from stressed ones, as a result of various changes: the shifting of word stress, vocalisation of [r] in the endings as writer, actor, where er and or became [ə]. Some of the new unstressed vowels were reduced to the neutral [ə] or dropped, while others retained certain qualitative & quantitative differences.

32.Chaucer&his Canterbury Tales

Geoffrey Chaucer- author,poet,philosopher,bureaucrat courtier,and diplomat,is described as the founder of the literary lang.was born in London&had the most varied experience as student, courtier, MP.He never wrote in any other lang besides Eng.Ch.wrote in a dialect which in the main coincided with that used in documents produced in LondonHe didn’t really created the literary lang,he set up a pattern to be followed in the 15 c.His poems were copied many times &were among 1^st to be printed.Ch’s lang I known as a classical ME-in the 15-16c it become the basis the national literary E.lang.

Canterbury Talesis a collection of stories written in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the rest in verse).The tales,some of which are originals and others not.The poet found himself at the Tabard Inn,bound on pilgrimage to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury.There he met piligrims&at the suggestions of the host,they began story-telling.In social position people,heros of the story,range from knight to drunken cook.The peope are shown with their distinct features&with theirs personal history The Canterbury Tales are written in ME.Some of the tales are serious&others comical.

Major works:Translation of Roman de la Rose, possibly extant as The Romance of the Rose;The Book of the Duchess;The House of Fame;Translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy as Boece.Short poems An ABC;Chaucers Wordes unto Adam.

33.The rise of articles

In OE texts the pronouns “se,seo,pat”were frequently used as noun-determiners with a weakend meaning,approaching that of the modern definite article(D.A)In the course of ME there arose an important formal difference between the demonstrative pronoun&D.A.:as a demonst.pronoun “that”preserved №distinctions whereas as a D.A-usually in weakend form “the”-it was uninflected.In the 14c.the article had lost al traces of inflection&became a short unaccented form-word.The meaning&functions of the D.A.became more specific when it came to be opposed to the indef.artc,which had developed from the OE numeral&indefin.pronoun “an”.In OE there existed 2words:an(a numeral)&sum(indef.pronoun)which were oft used in functions approaching those of the modern indef.artc.”An”seems to ve been a more colloquial word,while sum tended to assume a literary character.In early ME the indef.pronoun “an”whih had 5-case declension in OE lost its inflection.Its believed that the growth of artcls in early ME was caused by:the development of the D.A is connected with the changes in the declension of adject.,namely with the loss of distinctions b/n strong&weak forms;&the changing function of the word order(now the parts of the sentence had their own fixed places.

34.Major spelling changes in ME

In ME runic letters passed out of use.They were replaced by new letters&digraphs(thorn-p-&crossed “d” by digraph “th”, “double u” by “w”)After the period of Anglo-Norman dominance,E regained its prestige as the L of writing,through for a long time writing was in the hands of those,who had a good knowledge of French.Many innovations in ME spelling reveal in an influence of the Fr.tradition.The digraphs “ou,ie,ch”were adopted as new ways of indicating nthe sounds[u:][e:][tS].The letters “j,k,v,q”were probably 1^st used in imitation of Fr. manuscripts.Others changes in spelling can’t be traced directly to Fr. Late ME notaries introduced “sh”, to indicate the new sibillat [s/],the digraph “wh” replaced the OE sequence of letters “hw”as in OE hwaet,ME what .Some replacemens were probably made to avoid confusion of letters.The letter “y”came to be used as equivalent of “I”& was preferred when “I” could be confused with the surrounding letters “m,n”&others

Long sounds in ME texts are oft shown by double letters/digraphs.The length of vowel can be inferred from the nature of the syllable;open syll.contain long vowels,while closed syll.may contain 2:short&long vowels.In the numerous borrowed words of roman origin,adopted in ME&early NE the stress fell on the last syll.In the accordance with the phonetic tendencies the stress moved closer to the beginning of the word

35.The root-stem declension in OE&its survivals in Modern E.

The most remarkable feature of OE nouns was their elaborate system of declensions,which was a sort of morphological classification.The total number of declensions,including both the major&minor types,exceeded 25.The OE system of declensions was based on number of distinctions:steem-sufix,gender of nouns,phonetic structure of the word,phonetice changes in the final syll.Some groups of nouns had no stem-forming suffix(zero-suffex).They r called “root-stems”& are grouped together with consonant stems(bcs their roots ended in consonant)In early OE the root-vowel in some forms was subjected to phonetic changes:if the grammatical ending contained the sound [i],the vowel was narrowed&/fronted by palatal mutation.After the ending was dropped the mutated vowel turned out to be the only marker of the form(fot-feti-fetiz)The interchange of root-vowels had turned into a regular means of form-building used similarly with inflections.This pecularity of the root-stems is of considerable consequence for later history&has left traces in Mod.E(Irregular pl forms-men,women,teeth come from the OE root-stem declation)

36.The rise of do-forms

In the early NE a new set of analytical forms which entered the paradigms of the Pres.&Past Tense of the Indicative Mood was developed:interrogative&negatives forms with the auxiliary verb “do”.these forms are known as do-periphrasis.In ME the verb don was used ogether with an Inf.to express a causative meaning.In the early NE the causative meaningpassed to a similar verb phrase with “make”,while the perphrasis with do began to be employed instead of simple,synthetic forms.At 1^st the do-perephrasis was more frequent in poetry.The use of do enabled the author to have an extra syll.in the line/Then it spread to all kinds of texts.In 16&17c the periphrasis with do was used in all types of sentences-negative,affirmative&interrogative;it freely interchanged with the simple form,without do.In the end of17 c he use of simple forms&the do—pre became more differentiated:do was found mainly in negative statements&?,the simple forms-in affirmative statements.The do-pre turned into analytical negative&interrogative forms of simple forms:presn&past.When word oder became fixed,&the pedicate

Of the centence followed the subject,the use of do made it possible adhere to this order in ?,for at least the notional part of the predicate could thus preserve its position after the subject.This order of words was well established in numerous sentences with analytical forms&modals phrases.In the 18 c the periphrasis with do as an equivalent of the simple form in affirmative statements fell into disuse(its employment in affirmative sentences acquired a stylistic function:it made the statement emphatic)

37. The rise of the future forms.

In OE category of tense consisted of Pr.& Past. Pr could indicate pr & fut actions. Fut happenings were also presented:modal phrases(v sculan, willan, magan, cunnan) & Infinitive of the notional verb. The meaning of fut was combined with strong modal meaning.

ME shall+inf=the principle means of indicating fut in any context. Shall retained its modal meaning of necessity, but weakened it so that phrase denoted pure futurity; willen+inf=also expressed fut, but the meaning of volition was more obvious than the modal meaning of shall.

Shakespeare’s age-shall/will outnumbered all the other ways of indicating fut. 17cent. John Wallis formulated the rule about regular interchange depending on person, which proves that the semantic diff b/n the 2 auxiliary v was slight. End of 17-constructive form ‘ll.

38. Gram. agreement and government in OE.

In OE the ties b/n words in the sentence were shown by means of government and agreement, with the help of numerous inflections. Word order was less imp. A-system of correspondences b/n 2 or more words regarding gender, number, case, person. Classes of words which had to agree with the words they modified:possessive & demonstrative pronouns, both participles,v, adj. G-sys. by which 1 word determines the case of the other. Among gov words:chiefly verbs; adj, pronouns & numerals to a lesser extent. Most v required Acc(direct odj). Functions of cases in OE: Nom-subject, predicative, direct address; Gen- possessive & partitive meaning, objective & adverbial; Dat-instrumental, locative, ablative (dative proper).

39. Non-finite forms & development.

OE: 2 non-finite forms of v: the Inf.& the Participles. Their nominal features were more pronounced than their verbal feat.

Inf had no verbal gram. categories. Being a verbal noun by origin it had a sort of reduced case- system: 2 forms which roughly corresponded to Nom&Dat cases of nouns. P-verbal adj. PI active meaning, expressed present or simultaneous process.<present tense-stem+ende> PII passive or act meaning dep. on transitivity of the v.,expressed states & qualities resulting from past act. <str v- root-vowel interchange+en/weak v- d/t+ pref ge>

The main trends of their evolution in ME & NE-gradual loss of most nominal features & growth of verbal feat. The inf lost its inflected form (Dat case). ‘To’ lost its prepositional force & changed into a formal sign of the inf. PI&PII lost their gender, case, number distinctions, but general distinctions b/n P preserved as well as syntactic feat. The fusion of the participle with the verbal noun was an import. factor of the growth of a new verbal-Gerund; played a certain role in the development of Continuous forms.

40. Forms of negotiation in OE.

One of the distinguished features of OE syntax was multiple negation within a sentence or clause. Most common negation particle was ne, placed before verb, it was often accompanied by other negative words(naht=noht developed into not in ME), which emphasized the meaning of negation. Another feature-ne could be attached to some v( beon, willan, witan), pronouns, adv to form single words(nis-ne+is). Ne gradually fell out of usage.