13.The productive ways of coining new words in Eng.

Understanding words (Learn how words work, Brush up on your grammar, Study suffixes and prefixes, Study other languages); Creating Words for Fiction; Creating Slang (Truncate a word. (This is when you cut off a portion of the word, either at the beginning or the end.); Try verbing a word)

14.The translation equivalents and types of context.

If a specific linguistic unit in one language carries the same intended meaning / message encoded in a specific linguistic medium in another, then these two units are considered to be equivalent. The domain of equivalents covers linguistic units such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, idioms and proverbs. So, finding equivalents is the most problematic stage of translation. It is worth mentioning, however, it is not meant that the translator should always find one-to-one categorically or structurally equivalent units in the two languages, that is, sometimes two different linguistic units in different languages carry the same function. For example, the verb "happened" in the English sentence "he happens to be happy" equals the adverb "etefaghan" (by chance) in the Persian sentence: "u etefaghan khosh hal ast". The translator, after finding out the meaning of an SL linguistic form, should ask himself / herself what the linguistic form is in another language—TL—for the same meaning to be encoded by.

Context is one of the most important notions in the theory of translation and translation practice. There are several facets of the term depending on the perspective it is viewed from. We may distinguish between linguistic context (refers to surrounding text or talk of an expression (word, sentence, conversational turn, speech act, etc.). The idea is that verbal context influences the way we understand the expression. (financial community – деловые круги; community of interests - общность интересов) and situational/extralinguistic one (abolitionist – аболиционист, сторонник отмены «сухого закона», сторонник отмены смертной казни). The context — syntactic and lexical, narrow and wide — serves as that means which removes at multiple-valued unit all its values, except one. Its major function consists in it. So, the verb burn can be translated into Russian to жечь and гореть, and the conformity choice is entirely defined by a syntactic context in which the English word is used: in an intransitive design (at from-sutstvii a direct object) burn is translated as гореть. The candle burns.- Свеча горит Не burned the papers – он сжег бумаги. often, however, the equivalent choice is defined only taking into account a lexical context of the given unit which unambiguity is established within a certain lexical environment. So, the multiple-valued word attitude staticizes the value in a narrow lexical context.12 Не has a friendly attitude towards us. Он К нам относится по-дружески. He stood there in a threatening attitude Он стоял в угрожающей позе. We may distinguish as well between context on the level of a sentence (He is known for his radical attitudes – Он известен своими радикальными взглядами), on the level of a paragraph (university books – университетские книги; книги об университете), on the level of a text (titles of works of fiction)