МетодичкаStylistic

Методичні вказівки до семінарських та практичних занять із с тилістики англійської мови для студентів IV курсу стаціонару / Уклад. О.П. Воробйова;

Л.Ф. Бойцан, Л.В. Ганецька, О.Ю. Дубенко, І.О. Іноземцева, Л.Р. Чеботарьова, Л.Д. Якимчук. (англ. мовою) - К.: КДЛУ, 1997. – 64 с.

STYLISTIC LEXICOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1. Every notional word of a natural language carries some definite information. This (information may be basic or denotative and additional or connotative.

The majority of words of the English language posses denotative information only. So, they are stylistically neutral: man, house, to run, red etc. This does not mean that they cannot be used for stylistic purposes. A word in fiction acquires new qualities depending on its position, distribution, etc. Practically any word, depending on its context, may acquire certain connotations (honey-bum, sugar-plum).

In the English language, there are many words which possess not only basic information but additional information as well.

The additional information or connotative meaning may be of four types:

a) functional stylistic meaning which is the result of the constant usage of the word in definite speech spheres or situations: foe, maiden, realm are mostly used in poetry; terms and nomenclature words are used in scientific prose style and in official documents;

b)evaluative meaning which bears reference to things, phenomena, or ideas through the evaluation of the denotatum: out-of-date-method - time-tested method, firm - obstinate - pigheaded:

c)emotive meaning which expresses the speaker's emotional attitude to the denotatum

(chii, puppet, jade). Neutral words that name emotions like anger, pleasure, and pain should be distinguished from the above mentioned emotionally coloured words;

d)expressive meaning which does not refer directly to things or phenomena of the

objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker. It is based on the metaphorical transfer (speaking of a man - cockerel, bully, buck).

There are no strict rules for distinguishing between functional-stylistic and other connotative meanings. Moreover, the functional-stylistic meaning which is connected with a certain sphere of communication may serve as a starting point for the word acquiring other connotative meanings.

2. Stylistic classification of the vocabulary of any language is a very complicated problem. The existing classifications are based on different criteria, which take into account common semantic and stylistic characteristics of words in the given period of time (synchronic approach). The two criteria used for our classification are as follows:

1)paradigmatic criterion, i.e. the absence or presence in the word semantics of the additional information (evaluative, emotive or expressive meaning);

2)syntagmatic criterion, i.e. the character of syntagmatic relations between the lexical or lexical-stylistic meaning of the word and its context.

Both criteria are interconnected. Proceeding from them and using N.D.Arutyunova's ideas of the word semantics, we may divide all words of the English vocabulary into two major groups:

1. words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm which are characterised by:

a)an indirect reference to the object: fat cat (coll.) => a provider of money for political uses (neutral) => denotatum;

b)subjective evaluative connotations;

c)referential borders which are not strict: these words are of a qualifying character

so they may be used to characterise different referents; d) synonyms; e) possible antonyms.

To this group we refer poetic diction; archaisms (archaic words); barbarisms and foreign words; stylistic neologisms; slang; colloquialisms; jargonisms (social and professional); dialectal words; vulgarisms.

2 words having no iexico-stylistic paradigm are characterised by:

a)a direct reference to the object;

b)the absence of subjective evaluative connotations;

c)strict referential borders;

d)the lack of synonyms. Synonyms that they may have are purely denotative;

e)the lack of antonyms.

Here we refer stylistically neutral words; terms; nomenclature words; historical words: lexical neologisms; and exotic words.

Words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm are not homogeneous; they may enter the following oppositions:

colloquial vocabulary — bookish vocabulary non-literary words — literary words

general literary vocabulary — social or dialectal elements special vocabularycontemporary vocabulary — archaic vocabulary.

However, the mentioned groups of words are not closed; they are intersecting - one and the same word may belong to two or more groups.

3. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF THEWORDS HAVING A LEXICO-STYLISTIC PARADIGM

Lexical expressive means of the English language are words which do not only have denotative meaning but connotative as well. Depending on their connotative meaning such words fall into two major groups: literary (high-flown) words which are traditionally linked with poetic, bookish, or written speech and conversational (low-flown) words that are most often used in oral, colloquial speech. Literary words are more stable due to the traditions of the written type of speech. Conversational words are constantly changing. Within a period of time they can become high-flown or neutral, e.g bet, mob, trip, fun. chap.

3.1. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF LITERARY (HIGH-FLOWN) WORDS

Literary words of the English language can be classified into the following groups: poetic diction, archaic words, barbarisms and foreign words, bookish (learned) words.

Poetic diction.

Poetic words are stylistically marked, they form a lexico-stylistic paradigm. In the 17th-18th centuries they were widely used in poetry as synonyms of neutral words. In modern poetry such a vocabulary barely exists.

Poetic words are diverse; they include: і) archaic words (commix - mix)

2)archaic forms (vale - valley)

3)historic words (argosy - large merchant ship)

4)poetic words proper (anarch, brine),

Their main function is to mark the text in which they are used as poetic, thus distinguishing it from non-fiction texts. In modern poetry such words are seldom used. Their stylistic meaning gets more vivid when they are contrasted to neutral words.

Archaic words.

Archaic words, i.e. out-dated words that denote existing objects, are divided into two groups:

a)archaic words proper: words which are no longer recognised in modern English. They were used in Old English and have either dropped out of language use entirely or completely changed (troth - faith, losel - worthless);

b)archaic forms of the words: corse instead of corpse, an instead of and, annoy instead

of annoyance.

Speaking of archaic words we should distinguish "ageing/newness" of the word form and "ageing/newness" of the denotatum. And then, accordingly, we may correlate archaic words and historic words on the one hand as well as lexical and stylistic neologisms on the other

Lexical neologisms are new words that denote new objects (laser, shopping, pop promo, killer, satellite). Stylistic neologisms are new names that denote already existing objects and notions (mole - a spy who successfully infiltrates an organisation; ageism - discrimination of a person on the ground of age).

Historical words are associated with definite stages in the development of a society and cannot be neglected, though the things and phenomena to which they refer no longer exist. Historical words (yeoman, thane, baldric, goblet) have no synonyms as compared to archaic words which may be replaced by their modern synonyms.

Historical words and lexical neologisms having no stylistic meaning, do not form lexico-stylistic paradigms. But archaic words and stylistic neologisms mark the text stylistically, distinguishing it from neutral speech.

In fiction, together with historical words, archaisms create the effect of antiquity, providing a true-to-life historical background and reminding the reader of past habits, customs, clothes etc. The usage of archaisms, incompatible with conversational words, might in some cases lead to a humorous or satirical effect.

Barb aris ms and foreign words.

There are many borrowings in every language, some of them being assimilated. We may distinguish four groups of such words in English: foreign words, barbarisms, exotic words, and borrowings.

Foreign words are close to barbarisms, but they are characterised by occasional usage only, mainly in literary speech. They do not form a lexico-stylistic paradigm, though they may be used to create some stylistic effect.

Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not been entirely assimilated into the English language preserving their former spelling and pronunciation. Most of them (e.g. chic, chagrin, en passant) have corresponding English synonyms.

Exotic words are borrowed foreign words denoting objects characteristic of a certain country (canzonet, matador). They have no synonyms in the language-borrower, do not

form a lexico-stylistic paradigm and therefore are not considered to be lexical EM, but nevertheless they may be used for stylistic purposes.

Borrowings, if they are assimilated, do not differ much from native words as far as their stylistic aspect is concerned. They are usually high-flown synonyms of neutral native words (to commence — to begin, labour- work, female - woman).

The stylistic functions of barbarisms and foreign words are similar, they are used to create a local colouring, to identify a personage as a foreigner, or to show his/her mannerism.

Bookish (learned) words are mostly used in official or high-flown style (catenate, depicture, disimprove, dalliance). In official usage, they mark the text as belonging to this or that style of written speech, but when used in colloquial speech or in informal situations, they may create a comical effect.

3.2. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF CONVERSATIONAL (LOW -FLOWN) WORDS Here we refer colloquial words, general slang words (interjargon), special slang words (social and professional jargons), dialectal words and vulgarisms. Some linguists differentiate slang and jargon, but the difference is vague and is practically irrelevant for stylistics. Generally, colloquial words according to their usage may be divided into three big groups:

1) literary colloquial,

2)familiar colloquial:

3)low colloquial.

According to the relations between their form and meaning, all colloquial words may be divided into three subgroups:

a)words which are based on the change of their phonetic or morphological form without changing their lexical and stylistic meaning:

b)words which are the result of the change of both their form and lexico-stylistic meaning;

c)words which resulted from the change of their lexical and/or lexico-stylistic meaning without changing their form.

The first subgroup comprises such varieties of word-form change as:

a)clipping (shortening): serge - sergeant, caff - cafeteria;

b)contamination of a word combination: leggo - let's go, kinda - kind of, c'mon - come on; [gimme, dunno, gonna, wanna]

c)contamination of grammatical forms: I'd go, there's, we're going.

These words have no lexico-stylistic paradigms. They possess denotative meaning only. Within the second group of colloquialisms, we may distinguish two varieties of the word-form change leading to the alteration of its lexico-stylistic meaning:

a)the change of the grammatical form which brings the change of the lexico-stylistic meaning: heaps - very many, a handful — a person causing a lot of trouble;

b)the change of the word-building pattern which causes the emergence of another lexico-stylistic meaning through:

—affixation: oldie, tenner, clippie;

—compounding: backroom boy, dip-joint:

—conversion: to bag, teach-in;

—telescopy: swellegant, flush, fruice;

—shortening and affixation: Archie (Archibald);

—compounding and affixation: strap-hanger, arty-crafty,

Ail these words form a iexico-stylistic paradigm as they have synonyms among neutral and literary words and are characterised by various connotations while giving additional characteristics to the denotatum.

The third subgroup of colloquial words is the most numerous and comprises: a) words with emotive-expressive meaning only: oh, bach, ah as well as word combinations having a special expressive function: / never, Good (Great) heavens, God forbid; b; words and word combinations having both connotative and denotative meaning where the former one prevails: terribly, you don't say so, did he really;

c)words in which denotative and connotative meanings interplay: bunny — a waitress, colt-team - young team;

d)words in which denotative meaning in certain contextual conditions gives rise to a new connotative meaning: affair - business, to have an affair- to be in love, beggar

-poor person, lucky beggar- lucky person;

e)• words denotative and connotative meanings of which are completely different from

their former meanings: chanter (poetic) - a singer; chanter (col.) - a person who sells horses at the market.

Slang is composed of highly colloquial words whose expressiveness and novelty make them emphatic and emotive as compared to their neutral synonyms.

We can distinguish two varieties of slang: general slang (interjargon) and special slangs (social as well as professional jargons). Some of the former slangisms may enter the colloquial or even the neutral layer of the vocabulary (phone, flu, sky-scraper). Novelty is the most impressive feature of slang. As it disappears, they lose their expressiveness.

Vulgarisms are the words which are not generally used in public. However, they can be found in modern literature nowadays, though formerly they were tabooed or marked by the initial letters only.

Dialectal words ('ud - would, 'im - him, 'aseen - have seen, canna - cannot, dinna- don't, sportin - sporting) are used to intensify the emotive and expressive colouring of speech which is primarily determined by the peculiarities of social or geographical environment.

Conversational words of all kinds are widely used for stylistic purposes. There are four speech spheres in which they are mostly largely used: everyday speech, newspaper language, poetry, and fiction.

In newspaper language, colloquial words and word combinations, and sometimes general slang words, are used to give an expressive evaluation of facts and events. In modern poetry, words of all layers are most widely used. Lyrical poetry allows the usage of various non-poetic words to create the atmosphere of sincerity, confidence etc. Slang words in fiction (mostly in dialogues) add to the informality and emotiveness of the character's speech alongside with indicating social and speech peculiarities of the personages.

4. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF WORDS HAVING NO LEXICO-STYLISTIC PARADIGM

To this group, we refer terms, nomenclature words, historical words, exotic words, and lexical neologisms.

Terms are words and word combinations expressing scientific and scholarly notions in which essential properties of the object or phenomenon are reflected. Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and, therefore, with a set of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science or humanities. For example, language and speech may be used as synonyms in everyday usage, but in de Saussure's theory, they are opposed to each other as terms.

Nomenclature words are very close to terms: they refer to a definite branch of human activity, mainly professional, e.g. names of minerals, chemical elements, types of cars etc.

Historical words denote objects and notions referring to the past.

Exotic words denote notions and objects unknown or rarely met in the given language community.

Lexical neologisms are new (or old) words denoting new notions (see p. 16).

All the words mentioned above, being used in special texts, have no stylistic functions: their usage is determined by their nominative function, i.e. to define the denotatum. In fiction, they may acquire connotative meaning due to their syntagmatic relations with both stylistically marked and neutral words. For example, in Live with Lightning, Say No to Death, The Citadel, Airport, they are used to create the life-like atmosphere of a laboratory, hospital etc. When used in monologues or dialogues, terms become a means of the speech characterisation. Sometimes, while incompatible with their context, terms may be used to create a satirical or humorous effect.

5. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF PHRASEOLOGY

The question of the status of phraseological units (PhU) is very complicated. There are many phraseological units which are quite neutral: in fact, in turn, for instance, in order that, in principle. To this group we should also refer historical PhU: the secular arm, the Blue and the Grey, the common beam: lexical neologisms: oil crisis, energy crisis; and terminological PhU: supersentencial units, expressive means etc.

Additional (connotative) information of PhU, as that of any word, may be of four types: functional-stylistic, emotional, evaluative, and expressive-figurative.

Accordingly, PhU may be divided into two similar classes: PhU having a lexicostylistic paradigm and those having no lexico-stylistic paradigms.

PhU having a lexico-stylistic paradigm also fall into literary (be in accord with somebody play upon advantage, most and least, bring to mould; ad ovo, ad hoc, a la carte; a heart of oak, Achilles heel) and conversational ones (Adams ale, slit the bat, ask me another, monkey's allowance, to get on the ball, admiral of the red, grab for altitude, get the bird, sell one's back, get the wind up, a bit of jam, get somebody on his ears).

Peculiar stylistic usage of PhU is accounted for the possibility of their structural and contextual transformations which are oriented to achieving a definite stylistic effect.

Structural transformations of PhU may be represented by:

1)expansion of PhU, e.g. When you had a weak case and knew it, Alan thought, even straws should be grasped at firmly (from to catch at a straw);

2)reduction of PhU as the result of the compression of proverbs, sayings, quotations etc, e.g. Howaden added severely: "Better too much too early than too little too late" (from better late than never);

3)inversion of the components of PhU. It implies the change of the PhU structure

while preserving its original components, e.g. Fortunately it's only the cat's head and we still have a firm grip on the body (from to let the cat out of the bag).

Contextual transposition of PhU presupposes that a PhU may be totally reconsidered and reinterpreted in context, e.g. Pooh goes visiting and gets into a tight place (from to be in a tight comer).

2. STYLISTIC MORPHOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

The main unit of the morphological level is a morpheme — the smallest meaningful unit which can be singled out in a word There are two types of morphemes: root morphemes and affix ones. Morphology chiefly deals with forms, functions and meanings of affix morphemes.

Affix morphemes in English are subdivided into word-building and form-building morphemes. In the latter case affixation may be: 1) synthetical (boys, lived, comes, going) 2) analytical (has invited, is invited, does not invite); 3) based on the alteration of the root vowel (write - wrote)', 4) suppletive (go - went).

There are few language (or paradigmatic) synonyms among English morphemes and only some of them form stylistic oppositions, e.g. he liveshe does live. Come! -Do come! Don't forgetDon't you forget This scarcity of morphological EM which is predetermined by the analytical character of the English language is compensated by a great variety of SD.

Morphological SD as a deliberate shift in the fixed distribution of morphemes can be created by means of: a) the violation of the usual combinability of morphemes within a word, e.g. the plural of uncountable nouns (sands, waters, times), or the Continuous forms of the verbs of sense perception (to be seeing, to be knowing, to be feeling): b) the violation of the contextual distribution of morphemes, which is called form transposition.

2.1. SD BASED ON THE USE OF NOUNS

The invariant grammatical meaning of the noun, that of substance, is realised through grammatical categories of number, case, definiteness / indefiniteness which can be used for stylistic purposes.

Such SD may be based on a) repeating the same words in a syntactical construction, e.g. women are women, or b) using metaphorically nouns which belong to different lexicogrammatical classes, e.g. He is a devil with the women (S.Barstow).

In the opposition of singular:: plural the latter is a marked member, and, accordingly, the possibilities of its stylistic use are greater. Nevertheless, singular forms can also acquire stylistic meaning , e.g. to shoot dark, to hunt pig. The formant 's' as the marker of the category of possessiveness constantly widens the sphere of its usage and its combinability. It frequently combines with inanimate and abstract nouns, e.g. kitchen's work, the plan's failure. Sometimes it refers to a word group or a sentence, e.g. The blonde I had been dancing with's name was Bemice Crabs or Krebs (J.Salinger). As a result, the opposition N1 of N2 : : N2's N1 loses its stylistic character.

2.2. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ARTICLES

Articles which form the nucleus of the category of definiteness / indefiniteness in modern English may be regarded as analytical formants that might impart to the noun a stylistic colouring.

There are two ways of achieving a stylistic effect through the usage or non-usage of articles:

1) the violation of usual combinability of the definite and indefinite articles with proper names and the nouns denoting unique objects (sun, moon, sk y, earth). The indefinite article with proper names might acquire evaluative meaning. While the definite article indicates a temporary or permanent quality of the person in question. Names of unique objects while used with the indefinite article acquire the meaning "one of many";

2) the transposition of the meaning of an article in context in this case the objects or

phenomena are introduced by the narrator as if they are familiar to the reader. This device is sometimes called in medias res (the beginning from the middle).

2.3. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ADJECTIVES

In contrast with nouns, adjectives have only one grammatical category, that of comparison. The violation of morphemic combinability in adjectives which express different degrees of comparison are typical of advertising techniques, e.g. the most Italian car. The meaning of comparison can be also expressed lexically through equonisms, e.g. senior — junior, and adjectives with the -ish suffix, e.g. mannish, wommanish, which are occasional words which sound less categoric.

2.4. SD BASED ON THE USE OF PRONOUNS

Being very abstract, pronouns in contrast with nouns and adjectives are rarely used stylistically, which makes their stylistic usage especially expressive.

Pronouns may acquire stylistic value if they denote persons or objects that have not been named or introduced but are still represented as familiar. This device, in media res plunges the reader into the midst of events, making the author's narrative more intimate (see E. Hemingway's stones Now I Lay Me and In Another Country).

A particular stylistic effect may be created due to the usage of archaic (thee, thou, thy) or low colloquial forms of pronouns. White archaic forms make the speech sound official, solemn, or poetical, low colloquial forms usually render some speech characteristics. Pronouns can also undergo various contextual transpositions:

1)when we is used instead of I (/ -> we transposition):

a)Pluralis Auctoris ("editorial we"), when the author speaks on behalf of a certain group, party, or class;

b)Pluralis Majestatis, when we is used as a symbol of royal power:

c)Pluralis Modestial, when we is used as a means of involving the reader or listener into the author's thoughts, it is typical of oral or written scientific prose,

d)when we is employed to impart to the utterance a jocular unceremonious colouring,

2)/ => one transposition which gives an utterance a more general, impersonal character;

3)/ => you transposition which frequently occurs in reported speech and some descriptions;

4)/ => he/she transposition that takes place when:

a)the speaker tells his/her life story as an onlooker;

b)the speaker addresses himself / herself as an interlocutor;

c)the speaker overstresses his/her relevance;

d)the speaker laughs away what is said about him/her by the others;

5)you => we ("clinical we") transposition, which conveys a patronising attitude of the senior/ superior to the junior / inferior. It can also create a humorous effect.

2.5. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ADVERBS

Adverbs as one of the means of communicating intensity may be:

a)stylistically neutral, typical of both written and oral speech (exceedingly, quite, too, utterly):

b)stylistically marked, typical of oral speech only (awfully, terribly, dreadfully etc.).

The latter are close to intensifying particles.

Forma! differentiation of suffix and non-suffix adverbs in Modern English is supported by their stylistic usage. The use of non-suffix adverbs is typical of the oral form of speech. In belles-lettres style they can become SD which impart greater vividness and expressiveness to the personage's speech. Both types of adverbs may be found in the publicists style.

2.6. SD BASED ON THE USE OF VERBS

The existing diversity of verb categories, forms and constructions makes this part of speech the richest one as to its stylistic possibilities. The stylistic potential of the verb finds its obvious manifestations in the use of aspect, tense, voice, and mood forms.

Verb aspect forms have a lot of synonyms which allow diverse synonymous substitutions. Present, Past and Future Continuous forms, being more emotional than Indefinite ones, are frequently used instead of the latter to emphasise the emotional tension of the utterance or to impart politeness to it.

The interchange of verb tense forms (past with historic present or present with past or future) in the narrative makes the events, actions and situations described more vivid.

Passive constructions which might have a greater emotional charge than active

PHONETIC AND MORPHOLOGICAL MEANS OF STYLISTICS

1. PHONETIC MEANS OF STYLISTICS

Phoneme is the main unit of the phonological level. Its chief function is to differentiate meaningful units of the language. In contrast with the units of other language levels, phonemes have the expression side only, i.e. they are not twofold signs. As no phoneme can be stylistically marked in relation to another one, there are no EM on the phonological level. However, the English language can be characterised by certain patterns of sound arrangement. The use of these patterns (combinations and alterations of sounds in their syntagmatic succession) alongside with other language means may create various stylistic effects which give rise to SD on the phonological level.

The patterns of sound arrangement fall into:

a) versification, i.e. the art of writing poetry in keeping with certain rules based on language regularities and poets' experience, b) instrumentation, i.e. the sum total of sound selection and combination modes which impart to the utterance a certain sound organisation as well as emotional and expressive colouring.

There are three main modes of sound arrangement in instrumentation:

1)alliteration;

2)assonance;

3)onomatopoeia.

Sometimes euphony is added to this list. By tradition, euphony is understood as a harmonious sounding of the utterance. It can be also regarded as an optimum concordance of sound and meaning in the utterance. In both interpretations euphony proves to be a generic notion which comprises various ways of sound arrangement: rhythm, rhyme, epiphora, anaphora, alliteration, assonance, dissonance, and other kind's of sound repetitions.

Alliteration is a deliberate reiterated repetition of the same (or acoustically similar) sounds and sound combinations. It is one of the most ancient SD of English poetry. An Old English poem was completely alliteral as there were obligatory sound repetitions in certain parts of the poem. Alliteration is also widely used in English folklore, in proverbs sayings and set expressions, e.g. Praise is not pudding: Seldom seen, soon forgotten: Muck and money go together; Safe and sound.

Nowadays alliteration can be also found in book titles, e.g. Man and Mice (J.Steinbeck); Silver Spoon, Swan Song (J. Galsworthy). It is most frequent in modern poetry where it creates a certain melodic and emotional effect while enhancing the expressiveness of the utterance.

Assonance is a deliberate reiterated repetition of the same (or acoustically similar) vowels in close succession aimed at creating a specific sound and contential effect. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky.

(Children's Rhymes)

Onomatopoeia is a deliberate reiterated repetition of sounds and their combinations which, to a certain degree, imitates natural sounds. Onomatopoeia is basically the result of alliteration, e.g. Dreadful young creatures—squealing and squawking (D.Carter). Numerous examples prove the hypothesis of the correlation between the meaning of the word and its sound structure.

STYLISTIC SYNTAX OF THEENGLISH LANGUAGE

1. The study of the texts in terms of their syntactical organisation is regarded as one of the crucial issues in stylistic analysis, though the peculiarities of syntactical arrangement are not so conspicuous as the lexical and phraseological ones.

Stylistic syntax deals with specific patterns of syntactic usage, i.e. syntactical expressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD). In stylistic syntax, EM are recognised by less rule-bound modelling of sentences. All the deviations from the stylistically unmarked sentence pattern (S - P - O - D) are treated as its transforms that may acquire stylistic connotations, in which cases they are regarded as EM. The transformation of the pattern in question info negative and interrogative sentences rarely leads to any stylistic changes. Other transformations might create stylistically marked sentence patterns.

According to the type of transformation of the neutral syntactical pattern, all EM in English fall info three groups:

1.EM based on the reduction of the syntactical pattern that results from the deliberate omission of some obligatory element(s) of the sentence structure. This group includes ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, and asyndeton.

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2.EM based on the redundancy of the syntactical pattern that results from the addition of some sentence elements or their deliberate repetition. To this group we refer repetition, enumeration, syntactic tautology, polysyndeton, emphatic constructions, parenthetical clauses or sentences.

3.EM based on the violation of the grammatically fixed word order within a sentence or a deliberate isolation of some parts of the sentence. Here belong stylistic inversion,

syntactical split, and detachment.

The stylistic effect in syntax may be created not only due to the intrasentential relations (those between the elements of a sentence), but also due to the intersentential (i.e. the relations between several sentences) relations within paragraphs and other supraphrasal unities.

The stylistic effect in supersyntax may be achieved by the use of SD, i.e. stylistically marked means and patterns of combination of sentences within a larger context. SD may also be created due to the transposition of the syntactical meaning of a sentence in context. In this case a sentence acquires an additional meaning which is not typical of the corresponding syntactical structure.

Thus, taking into account the character of the relations between syntactical structures, possible transpositions of meanings in a context, and the means and types of connection within a sentence, we distinguish the following groups of syntactical SD:

1.SD based on the peculiar formal and semantic interaction of syntactical constructions within a sentential or suprasentential context: parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora.

2.SD based on the transposition of the syntactical meaning in context: rhetorical questions.

3.SD based on the transformation of the types and means of connection within or between sentences: parcellation, subordination instead of coordination, and coordination instead of subordination.

2.EXPRESSIVEMEANS OF ENGLISH SYNTAX

2.1. EM BASED ON THE REDUCTION OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE.

Ellipsis is the omission from a syntactical construction of one or more words which might be clearly understood from context. Elliptical sentences are regularly employed in conversational English. Being used in fiction, they result in achieving some stylistic effect by:

1)giving speech characteristics, e.g. Not him, sir. Too pleased with himself. Some gentlemen can't act... Too stiff (A. Christie);

2)emphasising some fact(s), e.g. The robbery Long Ago. Very valuable emeralds... The lady's made and the tweeny (A. Christie);

3)imitating spontaneity, e.g. "Quick - in here." Poirot led the way into the nearest

room..."And you - behind the curtain" (A. Christie).

Aposiopesis is a break in speech, while the thought is not completed, which is caused by the speaker's inability or unwillingness to finish the utterance, e.g. "Are you - are you and Paul..? " she stopped, squeezing my arm (D.Hammett); "It cant be - you don't mean.."(A. Christie).

Nominative sentences are one-member sentences with a noun, a prepositional nounphrase, or an adverb. These verbless sentences are grammatically independent. In contrast with elliptical sentences, they have only one principal part, with or without words modifying it.

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Nominative sentences may produce the effect of:

1)increasing the dynamism of narration, e.g. A remarkable woman - a dangerous woman. No waiting - no preparation. This afternoon - this very afternoon - with him here as witness... (A. Christie);

2)acquainting the reader with the place or background of action, e.g. Three blocks

more... Another three blocks. (D. Hammett).

Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions used to connect sentences, clauses, or words. As far as its stylistic role is concerned, asyndeton creates a certain rhythmical arrangement, usually making the narrative measured, energetic, and tense, e.g. That's all I'm to do, all I want to do (D.Hammett); Tree and hall rose peaceful under the night sky and clear full orb; pearly paleness gilded the building; mellowbrown gloom bosomed it round: shadows of deep green brooded above its oak-wreathed roof (Ch. Bronte).

2.2. EM BASED ON THE REDUNDANCY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Repetition is a reiteration of the same word or phrase to lay an emphatic stress on certain parts of the sentence.

Various types of repetition can be found in fiction:

1)ordinary repetition, i.e. a repetition of a word in close succession, e.g. She talked, in fact, and talked, and talked (A.Berkley);

2)framing or ring repetition, i.e. a repetition in which the opening word or phrase is repeated at the end of the sentence or a group of sentences, e.g. / cooled off where Frank was concerned; he didn't notice, but I cooled off (V. Pritchett);

3)anadiplosis or catch repetition, i.e. a repetition of the last word in a sentence or clause at the beginning of the next one, e.g. Yes, but I was afraid, afraid I'd go to one who'd tell Paul. I didn't know who to go to, who I could trust (D.Hammett);

4)chain repetition, i.e. a combination of catch repetitions, e.g. A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick's face. The smile extended into laugh; the laugh into roar, the roar became genera! (Ch. Dickens).

Enumeration is a repetition of homogeneous parts of the sentence, aimed at emphasising the whole utterance, e.g. / found battlers, secondmen, chauffeurs, cooks, maids, upstairs girls, downstairs girls, and a raft of miscellaneous flunkies - he had enough servants to run a hotel (D.Hammett).

Syntactical tautology is a superfluous repetition of semantically identical words or phrases to Say stress on a. certain part of the sentence e.g. She's always one for a change, Gladdie is... (A.Christie).

Polysyndeton is a repetition of conjunctions in close succession which are used to

connect sentences, clauses, or words and make the utterance more rhythmical, e.g.

She had herself a rich ruby look, for what with eating and drinking, and shouting and laughing and singing her face was crimson and almost steaming (J.Priestley).

Emphatic constructions may intensify or contrast any part of the sentence, giving it an emotive charge. The emphatic construction with "do" is used as a predicate intensifier. The construction "it is smb/smth who/that intensifies the subject; the construction "it is then that" stresses the adverbial modifier of time; "it is by/with/through smth that' makes prominent the adverbial modifier of manner. "It is to that/smth there that" brings to the foreground the object of the sentence, e.g. That evening it was Dave, who read to the boys their bed-time story (D. Carter); It was then that Poirot received a brief note from Sady Willard (A.Christie); / do know it! (D.Hammett).

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Parenthetical clauses are sentences or phrases inserted into a syntactical structure without being grammatically connected with it. The functions of parenthesis are those of exemplification, deliberation, or reference. Parenthetical clauses may produce various stylistic effects:

1)creating two layers of the narrative, e.g. He tried to shake Wynant down by threatening to shoot him, bomb his house. Kidnap his children, cut his wife's throat - / don't know what all - if he didn't come across (D.Hammett);

2)emphasising this or that fact, e.g. He laughed - not loud but in complete delight - and stood up exclaiming: "Judith herself!" (D.Hammett);

3)exemplifying certain points, e.g. The dog - a shapeless monster in the night - buried itself at the other side of the gate and barked terrifically (D.Hammett).

2.3. EM BASED ON THE VIOLATION OF THE WORD-ORDER

Inversion is the violation of the fixed word order within an English sentence. There are two major kinds of inversion:

1.that one which results in the change of the grammatical meaning of a syntactic structure, i.e. grammatical inversion (exclamatory and interrogative sentences), and

2.that one which results in adding to a sentence an emotive and emphatic colouring, i.e. stylistic inversion, e.g. And the palm-trees I like them not (A.Christie).

Inversion may be of two types:

1)complete, i.e. comprising the principal parts of the sentence, e.g. From behind me came Andrews voice (S. Chaplin);

2)partial, i.e. influencing the secondary parts of the sentence, e.g. Straight into the arms of the police they will go (A.Christie).

Separation or syntactical split is the splitting of a noun phrase by the attribute adjunct which is removed from the word it modifies. Stylistically, syntactical split is used to emphasise the phrase which was separated, e.g. He had never seen the truth before, about anything (R. Warren).

Detachment is a separation of a secondary part of the sentence with the aim of emphasising it, e.g. Formidable and ponderous, counsel for the defence arose

(A.Christie).

Detachment is to be regarded as a special kind of inversion, when some parts of the sentence are syntactically separated from its other members with which they are grammatically and logically connected.

3.SYNTACTICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES

3.1.SD BASED ON FORMAL AND SEMANTIC INTERACTION OF SYNTACTICAL

CONSTRUCTIONS

Parallelism is a repetition in close succession of the constructions formed by a similar syntactical pattern. Like inversion, parallelism may be complete and partial. Complete parallelism is observed when the syntactical pattern of the sentence that follows is completely similar to the proceeding one, e.g. He door-bell didn't ring. His telephonebell didn't ring (D. Hammett).

Parallelism is considered to be partial when either the beginning or the end of several neighbouring sentences are structurally similar, e.g. / want to see the Gorgensens together at home, I want to see Macawlay, and I want to see Studsy Burke (D.Hammett).

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Chiasmus (reversed parallelism) is a kind of parallelism where the word order of the sentence or clause that follows becomes inverted, e.g. He sat and watched me, I sat and watched him (D.Hammett).

The main stylistic function of chiasmus is to emphasise this or that part of the utterance , to break the rhythm and monotony of parallelism, e.g. Guild waited for me to say something, I waited for him (D. Hammett).

Anaphora is a repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences, e.g. Ergo, she didn't. Ergo, there never was such a bet. Ergo, Beresford was lying. Ergo, Beresford wanted to get hold of those chocolates for some reason other than he stated (A.Berkley).

Anaphora contributes greatly to creating a certain rhythm of the narrative.

Epiphora is the repetition of the final words or word-groups in succeeding sentences or clauses, e.g. / come to you on the level. Studsy says you are on the level. Be on the level (D. Hammett).

3.2. SD BASED ON THE TRANSPOSITION OF SYNTACTICAL MEANING Rhetorical questions are negative or affirmative statements rather than questions,

possible answers being implied by the question itself, e.g. Is the day of the supernatural over? (A.Christie).

Rhetorical questions can often be found in modern fiction in the descriptions of the character's inner state, his/her meditations and reflections, e.g. And then, like a douche of cold water, came the horrible thought, was she right? (A.Christie).

3.3. SD BASED ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF TYPES AND MEANS OF SYNTACTIC CONNECTION

Parcellation is a deliberate break of the sentence structure into two or more isolated parts, separated by a pause and a period. Parcellation is typical of colloquial speech. The main stylistic functions of parcellation are as follows:

1)specification of some concepts or facts, e.g. His wife had told him only the night before that he was getting a habit of it. Curious things, habits (A. Christie);

2)characterisation of the personages' emotional state, e.g. It angered him finally. With a curious sort of anger. Detached, somehow, separate from himself (C.B.Gilford);

3)description of the events or giving the personages' portrayal, e.g. I'd say he was thirty-five or -six. Sallow, dark hair and eyes, with the eyes set pretty close together, big mouth, long limp nose, bat-wing ears - shifty-looking (D. Hammett); A touring car, large, black, powerfully engined and with lowered curtains, came from the

rear... Possibly a scout (D. Hammett).

The usage of coordination instead of subordination helps the author to show different planes of narration, in this case the connection itself is more important stylistically than the contents of the sentence, e.g. He was more enthusiastic about America than ever, and he was not so simple, and he was not so nice (E. Hemingway).

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1.The notion of EM and SD on the syntactical level. EM as stylistically marked sentence patterns, SD as selection and combination of sentence patterns.

2.Expressive means of English syntax based on:

1)the reduction of the sentence structure (ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, and asyndeton);

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2)the redundancy of sentence structure (repetition, anadiplosis, tautology, polysyndeton, emphatic constructions, and parenthetical clauses);

3)the violation of word order in the sentence structure (stylistic inversion, syntactical split, and detachment).

3.Stylistic devices of English syntax based on:

1} the interaction of syntactical constructions (parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, and epiphora);

2)the transposition of syntactical meaning in context (rhetorical questions);

3)the transformation of types and forms of connection between clauses and sentences (parcellation, coordination instead of subordination, subordination instead of coordination).

STYLISTIC SEMASIOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1. Semasiology is a branch of linguistics which studies semantics or meaning of linguistic units belonging to different language levels.

Lexical semasiology analyses the meaning of words and word combinations, relations between these meanings and the changes these meanings undergo.

Stylistic semasiology is concerned only with those semantic relations and changes which form the basis of EM and SD.

The subject-matter of stylistic semasiology is stylistic semantics ,i.e. additional