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Файл:Daniel Solis - Illustrated C# 2010 - 2010.pdf
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- •Contents at a Glance
- •Contents
- •About the Author
- •Acknowledgments
- •Introduction
- •C# and the .NET Framework
- •Before .NET
- •Windows Programming in the Late 1990s
- •Goals for the Next-Generation Platform Services
- •Enter Microsoft .NET
- •Components of the .NET Framework
- •An Improved Programming Environment
- •Object-Oriented Development Environment
- •Automatic Garbage Collection
- •Interoperability
- •No COM Required
- •Simplified Deployment
- •Type Safety
- •The Base Class Library
- •Compiling to the Common Intermediate Language
- •Compiling to Native Code and Execution
- •Overview of Compilation and Execution
- •The Common Language Runtime
- •The Common Language Infrastructure
- •Important Parts of the CLI
- •Common Type System (CTS)
- •Common Language Specification (CLS)
- •Review of the Acronyms
- •Overview of C# Programming
- •A Simple C# Program
- •More About SimpleProgram
- •Identifiers and Keywords
- •Naming Conventions
- •Keywords
- •Main: The Starting Point of a Program
- •Whitespace
- •Statements
- •Simple Statements
- •Blocks
- •Text Output from a Program
- •Write
- •WriteLine
- •The Format String
- •Multiple Markers and Values
- •Comments: Annotating the Code
- •More About Comments
- •Documentation Comments
- •Summary of Comment Types
- •Types, Storage, and Variables
- •A C# Program Is a Set of Type Declarations
- •A Type Is a Template
- •Instantiating a Type
- •Data Members and Function Members
- •Types of Members
- •Predefined Types
- •More About the Predefined Types
- •User-Defined Types
- •The Stack and the Heap
- •The Stack
- •Facts About Stacks
- •The Heap
- •Value Types and Reference Types
- •Storing Members of a Reference Type Object
- •Categorizing the C# Types
- •Variables
- •Variable Declarations
- •Variable Initializers
- •Automatic Initialization
- •Multiple-Variable Declarations
- •Using the Value of a Variable
- •Static Typing and the dynamic Keyword
- •Nullable Types
- •Creating a Nullable Type
- •Assigning to a Nullable Type
- •Classes: The Basics
- •Overview of Classes
- •A Class Is an Active Data Structure
- •Programs and Classes: A Quick Example
- •Declaring a Class
- •Class Members
- •Fields
- •Explicit and Implicit Field Initialization
- •Declarations with Multiple Fields
- •Methods
- •Creating Variables and Instances of a Class
- •Allocating Memory for the Data
- •Combining the Steps
- •Instance Members
- •Access Modifiers
- •Private and Public Access
- •Depicting Public and Private Access
- •Example of Member Access
- •Accessing Members from Inside the Class
- •Accessing Members from Outside the Class
- •Putting It All Together
- •Methods
- •The Structure of a Method
- •Code Execution in the Method Body
- •Local Variables
- •Type Inference and the var Keyword
- •Local Variables Inside Nested Blocks
- •Local Constants
- •Flow of Control
- •Method Invocations
- •Return Values
- •The Return Statement and Void Methods
- •Parameters
- •Formal Parameters
- •Actual Parameters
- •An Example of Methods with Positional Input Parameters
- •Value Parameters
- •Reference Parameters
- •Output Parameters
- •Parameter Arrays
- •Method Invocation
- •Expanded Form
- •Arrays As Actual Parameters
- •Summary of Parameter Types
- •Method Overloading
- •Named Parameters
- •Optional Parameters
- •Stack Frames
- •Recursion
- •More About Classes
- •Class Members
- •Order of Member Modifiers
- •Instance Class Members
- •Static Fields
- •Accessing Static Members from Outside the Class
- •Example of a Static Field
- •Lifetimes of Static Members
- •Static Function Members
- •Other Static Class Member Types
- •Member Constants
- •Constants Are Like Statics
- •Properties
- •Property Declarations and Accessors
- •A Property Example
- •Using a Property
- •Properties and Associated Fields
- •Performing Other Calculations
- •Read-Only and Write-Only Properties
- •An Example of a Computed, Read-Only Property
- •Example of Properties and Databases
- •Properties vs. Public Fields
- •Automatically Implemented Properties
- •Static Properties
- •Instance Constructors
- •Constructors with Parameters
- •Default Constructors
- •Static Constructors
- •Example of a Static Constructor
- •Accessibility of Constructors
- •Object Initializers
- •Destructors
- •Calling the Destructor
- •The Standard Dispose Pattern
- •Comparing Constructors and Destructors
- •The readonly Modifier
- •The this Keyword
- •Indexers
- •What Is an Indexer?
- •Indexers and Properties
- •Declaring an Indexer
- •The Indexer set Accessor
- •The Indexer get Accessor
- •More About Indexers
- •Declaring the Indexer for the Employee Example
- •Another Indexer Example
- •Indexer Overloading
- •Access Modifiers on Accessors
- •Partial Classes and Partial Types
- •Partial Methods
- •Classes and Inheritance
- •Class Inheritance
- •Accessing the Inherited Members
- •All Classes Are Derived from Class object
- •Hiding Members of a Base Class
- •Base Access
- •Using References to a Base Class
- •Virtual and Override Methods
- •Overriding a Method Marked override
- •Case 1: Declaring Print with override
- •Case 2: Declaring Print with new
- •Overriding Other Member Types
- •Constructor Execution
- •Constructor Initializers
- •Class Access Modifiers
- •Inheritance Between Assemblies
- •Member Access Modifiers
- •Regions Accessing a Member
- •Public Member Accessibility
- •Private Member Accessibility
- •Protected Member Accessibility
- •Internal Member Accessibility
- •Protected Internal Member Accessibility
- •Summary of Member Access Modifiers
- •Abstract Members
- •Abstract Classes
- •Example of an Abstract Class and an Abstract Method
- •Another Example of an Abstract Class
- •Sealed Classes
- •Static Classes
- •Extension Methods
- •Expressions and Operators
- •Expressions
- •Literals
- •Integer Literals
- •Real Literals
- •Character Literals
- •String Literals
- •Order of Evaluation
- •Precedence
- •Associativity
- •Simple Arithmetic Operators
- •The Remainder Operator
- •Relational and Equality Comparison Operators
- •Comparison and Equality Operations
- •Increment and Decrement Operators
- •Conditional Logical Operators
- •Logical Operators
- •Shift Operators
- •Assignment Operators
- •Compound Assignment
- •The Conditional Operator
- •Unary Arithmetic Operators
- •User-Defined Type Conversions
- •Explicit Conversion and the Cast Operator
- •Operator Overloading
- •Restrictions on Operator Overloading
- •Example of Operator Overloading
- •The typeof Operator
- •Other Operators
- •Statements
- •What Are Statements?
- •Expression Statements
- •Flow-of-Control Statements
- •The if Statement
- •The if . . . else Statement
- •The switch Statement
- •A Switch Example
- •More on the switch Statement
- •Switch Labels
- •The while Loop
- •The do Loop
- •The for Loop
- •The Scope of Variables in a for Statement
- •Multiple Expressions in the Initializer and Iteration Expression
- •Jump Statements
- •The break Statement
- •The continue Statement
- •Labeled Statements
- •Labels
- •The Scope of Labeled Statements
- •The goto Statement
- •The goto Statement Inside a switch Statement
- •The using Statement
- •Packaging Use of the Resource
- •Example of the using Statement
- •Multiple Resources and Nesting
- •Another Form of the using Statement
- •Other Statements
- •Namespaces and Assemblies
- •Referencing Other Assemblies
- •The mscorlib Library
- •Namespaces
- •Namespace Names
- •More About Namespaces
- •Namespaces Spread Across Files
- •Nesting Namespaces
- •The using Directives
- •The using Namespace Directive
- •The using Alias Directive
- •The Structure of an Assembly
- •The Identity of an Assembly
- •Strongly Named Assemblies
- •Creating a Strongly Named Assembly
- •Private Deployment of an Assembly
- •Shared Assemblies and the GAC
- •Installing Assemblies into the GAC
- •Side-by-Side Execution in the GAC
- •Configuration Files
- •Delayed Signing
- •Exceptions
- •What Are Exceptions?
- •The try Statement
- •Handling the Exception
- •The Exception Classes
- •The catch Clause
- •Examples Using Specific catch Clauses
- •The catch Clauses Section
- •The finally Block
- •Finding a Handler for an Exception
- •Searching Further
- •General Algorithm
- •Example of Searching Down the Call Stack
- •Throwing Exceptions
- •Throwing Without an Exception Object
- •Structs
- •What Are Structs?
- •Structs Are Value Types
- •Assigning to a Struct
- •Constructors and Destructors
- •Instance Constructors
- •Static Constructors
- •Summary of Constructors and Destructors
- •Field Initializers Are Not Allowed
- •Structs Are Sealed
- •Boxing and Unboxing
- •Structs As Return Values and Parameters
- •Additional Information About Structs
- •Enumerations
- •Enumerations
- •Setting the Underlying Type and Explicit Values
- •Implicit Member Numbering
- •Bit Flags
- •The Flags Attribute
- •Example Using Bit Flags
- •More About Enums
- •Arrays
- •Arrays
- •Definitions
- •Important Details
- •Types of Arrays
- •An Array As an Object
- •One-Dimensional and Rectangular Arrays
- •Declaring a One-Dimensional Array or a Rectangular Array
- •Instantiating a One-Dimensional or Rectangular Array
- •Accessing Array Elements
- •Initializing an Array
- •Explicit Initialization of One-Dimensional Arrays
- •Explicit Initialization of Rectangular Arrays
- •Syntax Points for Initializing Rectangular Arrays
- •Shortcut Syntax
- •Implicitly Typed Arrays
- •Putting It All Together
- •Jagged Arrays
- •Declaring a Jagged Array
- •Shortcut Instantiation
- •Instantiating a Jagged Array
- •Subarrays in Jagged Arrays
- •Comparing Rectangular and Jagged Arrays
- •The foreach Statement
- •The Iteration Variable Is Read-Only
- •The foreach Statement with Multidimensional Arrays
- •Example with a Rectangular Array
- •Example with a Jagged Array
- •Array Covariance
- •Useful Inherited Array Members
- •The Clone Method
- •Comparing Array Types
- •Delegates
- •What Is a Delegate?
- •Declaring the Delegate Type
- •Creating the Delegate Object
- •Assigning Delegates
- •Combining Delegates
- •Adding Methods to Delegates
- •Removing Methods from a Delegate
- •Invoking a Delegate
- •Delegate Example
- •Invoking Delegates with Return Values
- •Invoking Delegates with Reference Parameters
- •Anonymous Methods
- •Using Anonymous Methods
- •Syntax of Anonymous Methods
- •Return Type
- •Parameters
- •params Parameters
- •Scope of Variables and Parameters
- •Outer Variables
- •Extension of Captured Variable’s Lifetime
- •Lambda Expressions
- •Events
- •Events Are Like Delegates
- •An Event Has a Private Delegate
- •Overview of Source Code Components
- •Declaring an Event
- •An Event Is a Member
- •The Delegate Type and EventHandler
- •Raising an Event
- •Subscribing to an Event
- •Removing Event Handlers
- •Standard Event Usage
- •Using the EventArgs Class
- •Passing Data by Extending EventArgs
- •Using the Custom Delegate
- •The MyTimerClass Code
- •Event Accessors
- •Interfaces
- •What Is an Interface?
- •Example Using the IComparable Interface
- •Declaring an Interface
- •Implementing an Interface
- •Example with a Simple Interface
- •An Interface Is a Reference Type
- •Using the as Operator with Interfaces
- •Implementing Multiple Interfaces
- •Implementing Interfaces with Duplicate Members
- •References to Multiple Interfaces
- •An Inherited Member As an Implementation
- •Explicit Interface Member Implementations
- •Accessing Explicit Interface Member Implementations
- •Interfaces Can Inherit Interfaces
- •Example of Different Classes Implementing an Interface
- •Conversions
- •What Are Conversions?
- •Implicit Conversions
- •Explicit Conversions and Casting
- •Casting
- •Types of Conversions
- •Numeric Conversions
- •Implicit Numeric Conversions
- •Overflow Checking Context
- •The checked and unchecked Operators
- •The checked and unchecked Statements
- •Explicit Numeric Conversions
- •Integral to Integral
- •float or double to Integral
- •decimal to Integral
- •double to float
- •float or double to decimal
- •decimal to float or double
- •Reference Conversions
- •Implicit Reference Conversions
- •Explicit Reference Conversions
- •Valid Explicit Reference Conversions
- •Boxing Conversions
- •Boxing Creates a Copy
- •The Boxing Conversions
- •Unboxing Conversions
- •The Unboxing Conversions
- •User-Defined Conversions
- •Constraints on User-Defined Conversions
- •Example of a User-Defined Conversion
- •Evaluating User-Defined Conversions
- •Example of a Multistep User-Defined Conversion
- •The is Operator
- •The as Operator
- •Generics
- •What Are Generics?
- •A Stack Example
- •Generics in C#
- •Continuing with the Stack Example
- •Generic Classes
- •Declaring a Generic Class
- •Creating a Constructed Type
- •Creating Variables and Instances
- •The Stack Example Using Generics
- •Comparing the Generic and Nongeneric Stack
- •Constraints on Type Parameters
- •Where Clauses
- •Constraint Types and Order
- •Generic Methods
- •Declaring a Generic Method
- •Invoking a Generic Method
- •Inferring Types
- •Example of a Generic Method
- •Extension Methods with Generic Classes
- •Generic Structs
- •Generic Delegates
- •Another Generic Delegate Example
- •Generic Interfaces
- •An Example Using Generic Interfaces
- •Generic Interface Implementations Must Be Unique
- •Covariance and Contravariance in Generics
- •Covariance and Contravariance in Interfaces
- •More About Variance
- •Enumerators and Iterators
- •Enumerators and Enumerable Types
- •Using the foreach Statement
- •Types of Enumerators
- •Using the IEnumerator Interface
- •Declaring an IEnumerator Enumerator
- •The IEnumerable Interface
- •Example Using IEnumerable and IEnumerator
- •The Noninterface Enumerator
- •The Generic Enumeration Interfaces
- •The IEnumerator<T> Interface
- •The IEnumerable<T> Interface
- •Iterators
- •Iterator Blocks
- •Using an Iterator to Create an Enumerator
- •Using an Iterator to Create an Enumerable
- •Common Iterator Patterns
- •Producing Enumerables and Enumerators
- •Producing Multiple Enumerables
- •Producing Multiple Enumerators
- •Behind the Scenes with Iterators
- •Introduction to LINQ
- •What Is LINQ?
- •LINQ Providers
- •Anonymous Types
- •Query Syntax and Method Syntax
- •Query Variables
- •The Structure of Query Expressions
- •The from Clause
- •The join Clause
- •What Is a Join?
- •The from . . . let . . . where Section in the Query Body
- •The from Clause
- •The let Clause
- •The where Clause
- •The orderby Clause
- •The select . . . group Clause
- •Anonymous Types in Queries
- •The group Clause
- •Query Continuation
- •The Standard Query Operators
- •Signatures of the Standard Query Operators
- •Delegates As Parameters
- •The LINQ Predefined Delegate Types
- •Example Using a Delegate Parameter
- •Example Using a Lambda Expression Parameter
- •LINQ to XML
- •Markup Languages
- •XML Basics
- •The XML Classes
- •Creating, Saving, Loading, and Displaying an XML Document
- •Creating an XML Tree
- •Using Values from the XML Tree
- •Adding Nodes and Manipulating XML
- •Working with XML Attributes
- •Other Types of Nodes
- •XComment
- •XDeclaration
- •XProcessingInstruction
- •Using LINQ Queries with LINQ to XML
- •Introduction to Asynchronous Programming
- •Processes, Threads, and Asynchronous Programming
- •Multithreading Considerations
- •The Complexity of Multithreading
- •Parallel Loops
- •The BackgroundWorker Class
- •Example Code Using the BackgroundWorker Class
- •Example of the BackgroundWorker Class in a WPF Program
- •Asynchronous Programming Patterns
- •BeginInvoke and EndInvoke
- •The Wait-Until-Done Pattern
- •The AsyncResult Class
- •The Polling Pattern
- •The Callback Pattern
- •The Callback Method
- •Calling EndInvoke Inside the Callback Method
- •Timers
- •Preprocessor Directives
- •What Are Preprocessor Directives?
- •General Rules
- •The #define and #undef Directives
- •Conditional Compilation
- •The Conditional Compilation Constructs
- •Diagnostic Directives
- •Line Number Directives
- •Region Directives
- •The #pragma warning Directive
- •Reflection and Attributes
- •Metadata and Reflection
- •The Type Class
- •Getting a Type Object
- •What Is an Attribute?
- •Applying an Attribute
- •Predefined, Reserved Attributes
- •The Obsolete Attribute
- •The Conditional Attribute
- •Example of the Conditional Attribute
- •Predefined Attributes
- •More About Applying Attributes
- •Multiple Attributes
- •Other Types of Targets
- •Global Attributes
- •Custom Attributes
- •Declaring a Custom Attribute
- •Using Attribute Constructors
- •Specifying the Constructor
- •Using the Constructor
- •Positional and Named Parameters in Constructors
- •Restricting the Usage of an Attribute
- •The Constructor for AttributeUsage
- •Suggested Practices for Custom Attributes
- •Accessing an Attribute
- •Using the IsDefined Method
- •Using the GetCustomAttributes Method
- •Other Topics
- •Overview
- •Strings
- •Using Class StringBuilder
- •Formatting Numeric Strings
- •The Alignment Specifier
- •The Format Component
- •Standard Numeric Format Specifiers
- •Parsing Strings to Data Values
- •More About the Nullable Types
- •The Null Coalescing Operator
- •Using Nullable User-Defined Types
- •Nullable<T>
- •Method Main
- •Accessibility of Main
- •Documentation Comments
- •Inserting Documentation Comments
- •Using Other XML Tags
- •Nested Types
- •Example of a Nested Class
- •Visibility and Nested Types
- •Interoperating with COM
- •Index
CHAPTER 4 CLASSES: THE BASICS
Overview of Classes
In the previous chapter, you saw that C# provides six user-defined types. The most important of these, and the one I’ll cover first, is the class. Since the topic of classes in C# is a large one, its discussion will be spread over the next several chapters.
A Class Is an Active Data Structure
Before the days of object-oriented analysis and design, programmers thought of a program as just a sequence of instructions. The focus at that time was on structuring and optimizing those instructions. With the advent of the object-oriented paradigm, the focus changed from optimizing instructions to organizing a program’s data and functions into encapsulated sets of logically related data items and functions, called classes.
A class is a data structure that can store data and execute code. It contains the following:
•Data members, which store data associated with the class or an instance of the class. Data members generally model the attributes of the real-world object the class represents.
•Function members, which execute code. Function members generally model the functions and actions of the real-world object the class represents.
A C# class can have any number of data and function members. The members can be any combination of nine possible member types. Table 4-1 shows these member types. The ones I’ll cover in this chapter—fields and methods—are checked in the table.
Table 4-1. Types of Class Members
Data Members Store Data |
Function Members Execute Code |
|
Fields |
Methods |
Operators |
Constants |
Properties |
Indexers |
|
Constructors |
Events |
Destructors
Note Classes are encapsulated sets of logically related data items and functions that generally represent objects in the real world or a conceptual world.
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