Grammatika_sovremennogo_angliyskogo_y

But when names of lakes are preceded by the noun lake (which is often the case), no article is used, e.g. Lake Baikal, Lake Ohio, Lake Como, Lake Superior, Lake Ladoga, etc.

4) Names of bays generally have no article, e.g. Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay, etc.

5)Names of peninsulas have no article if the proper name is used alone, e.g. Indo-China, Hindustan, Kamchatka, Labrador, Taimir, Scandinavia, etc. But we find the definite article if the noun peninsula is mentioned, e.g. the Balkan Peninsula, the Kola Peninsula, etc.

6)Names of deserts are generally used with the definite article, e.g. the Sahara, the Gobi, the KaraKumt etc.

7)Names of mountain chains (a) and groups of islands (b) are

used with the definite article, e.g.

a)the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, the Alps, the Pamirs, etc.;

b)the Philippines, the Azores, the Bahamas, the East Indies, the Canaries, the Hebrides, the Bermudas, etc.

8)Names of separate mountain peaks (a), separate islands (b)

and waterfalls (c) are used without any article, e.g.

a)Elbrus, Mont Blanc, Everest, Vesuvius, etc.;

b)Sicily, Cuba, Haiti, Cyprus, Newfoundland, Madagascar, etc.;

c)Niagara Falls, etc.

9)Names of mountain passes are generally used with the definite article, e.g. the Saint Gotthard Pass, etc.

§ 63. Geographic names that generally take no article may be occasionally found with the definite or indefinite articles. This occurs in the following cases.

1) The definite article is found when there is a limiting attribute.

e.g. In Ivanhoe Walter Scott described the England of the Middle Ages.

2) The indefinite article is found when a geographic name is modified by a descriptive attribute which, brings out a special aspect.

e.g. The flier went on to say: "There will be a different Germany after the war.

" It was a new Russia that he found on his return. Note. The definite article is always used with the pattern: a common noun + of + a

proper name, e.g. the City of New York, the village of Grasmere, the Cape of Good Hope, the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Gibraltar, the Straits of Malacca, the Straits of Dover, the Bay of Biscay, the Bay of Bengal, the Gulf of Finland, the Lake of Geneva, the Island of Majorca, etc.

The Use of Articles with Miscellaneous Proper Names

§ 64. This group of proper names includes names of various places, objects and notions. Within certain semantic groups of these nouns the use of articles is not stable — it may vary from proper name to proper name. Hence it is sometimes necessary to

4) Names of theatres (a), museums (b), picture galleries (c), concert halls (d), cinemas (e), clubs (f) and hotels (g) tend to be used with the definite article, e.g.

a) the Coliseum Theatre, the Opera House, the Bolshoi Theatre, etc.;

b)the British Museum, the Scottish National Museum, etc.;

c)the National Gallery, the Tate {gallery), the Tretiakov Gal lery, the Hermitage, the Louvre, etc.;

d)the Festival Hall, the Albert Hall, the Carnegie Hall, the

Chaikovsky Hall, etc.;

e)the Empire, the Dominion, the Odeon, etc.;

f)the National Liberal Club, the Rotary Club, etc.;

g)the Ambassador Hotel, the Continental Hotel, the Savoy, etc.

But in newspaper announcements and advertisements the article is usually not found with these nouns.

5)Names of ships and boats are used with the definite article, e.g. the Sedov, the Titanic, etc.

6)Names of newspapers and magazines are generally used with the definite article, e.g. The Times, The Guardian, The Lancet, etc. Note, however, Give me a Times, please.

7)The use of articles with names of separate buildings varies from name to name and should be remembered as a special item, e.g. Scotland Yard, Westminster Abbey, Buckingham Palace, etc. But: the Old Bailey, the Tower, the Royal Exchange, etc.

8)Names of territories consisting of a word combination in which the last word is a common noun are generally used with the definite article, e.g. the Lake District, the Yorkshire Forests, the Kalinin Region, the Virgin Lands, etc.

9)Names of months (a) and the days of the week (b) are used

without any article,

e.g. a) January, February, March, etc.

b) Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, etc.

Compare, however: We met on Friday ('

'} and We met on a Friday ('

').

10) Names of state institutions, organizations and political parties are used with the definite article, e.g. the Liberal Party

the National Trust, the Church, the London City Council, etc. But: Parliament (in Great Britain), (the) Congress (in the USA), NATO.

11) Names of languages are used without any article unless the noun language is mentioned, e.g. English, French, Japanese, etc. But: the English language, the Italian language, the Polish language, etc.

Note. Note the phrases: Translated from the German and What is the French for "book"?

12) We find the definite article with names of some grammatical categories, such as names of tenses, moods, voices, cases and others, e.g. the Past Indefinite, the Passive Voice, the Conditional Mood, the Genitive Case, etc.

He signed both (the) papers.

The use of the definite article after the pronoun all is determined by the general rules.

e.g. All children have to go to school one day.

All the children of the boarding school were in bed.

Note. Note that when both is part of the correlative conjunction both ... and, either article may be found after it, i.e. in this case the article is chosen in accordance with the general rules.

e.g. He was both a scrupulous and a kind-hearted man.

7) The definite and the indefinite articles follow half and twice.

e.g. Half the men were too tired to go. It took us half an hour to settle it. He paid twice the price for it.

They used to meet twice a week.

Note 1. Note the difference in meaning between twice followed by the definite article and twice followed by the indefinite article: twice the price ', twice a week '.

Note 2. Half may serve as the first component of a compound noun. In this case the article naturally precedes it, e.g. a half brother, a half-truth, etc.

ADJECTIVES

§ 1. Adjectives are words expressing properties and characteristics of objects (e.g. large, blue, simple, clever, wooden, economic, progressive, etc.) and, hence, qualifying nouns.

Grammatically, four features are generally considered to be characteristic of adjectives:

1)their syntactic function of attribute,

2)their syntactic function of predicative,

3)their taking of adverbial modifiers of degree (e.g. very),

4)their only grammatical category — the degrees of comparison. (Adjectives in English do not change for number or case.)

However, not all adjectives possess all of the four features. For example, Features 3 and 4 neither distinguish adjectives from adverbs, nor are found in all adjectives.

Furthermore, there are adjectives that function both attributively and predicatively (e.g. He is my young brother. My brother is young yet.). And there are also adjectives that function only attributively (e.g. a mere child, a sheer waste, an utter fool) or only predicatively (e.g. glad, able, afraid, alike, alive, etc.).

Formation of Adjectives

§ 2. Many adjectives are formed from other parts of speech by adding different suffixes the most common of which are:

-able: comfortable, preferable, reliable -ible: sensible, visible, susceptible -ant: elegant, predominant, arrogant

speech, as it were.

Besides, there are adjectives that can be used only attributively. To this group belong:

1) intensifying adjectives:

a)emphasizers (giving a general heightening effect): a clear failure, a definite loss, plain nonsense, a real hero, the simple truth, a true scholar, a sure sign, etc.

b)amplifiers (denoting a high or extreme degree): a complete victory, total nonsense, the absolute truth, a great scholar, a strong

opponent, utter stupidity, the entire world, etc.

c) downtoners (having a lowering effect): a slight misunderstanding, a feeble reason, etc.

2) restrictive adjectives (which restrict the reference to the noun exclusively, particularly or chiefly): the exact answer, the main reason, his chief excuse, a particular occasion, the precise information, the principal objection, the specific point, etc.

3)adjectives related to adverbial expressions: a former friend (—> formerly a friend), a possible opponent (—> possibly an opponent), the present leader (—> the leader at present), an occasional visitor (-> occasionally a visitor), an apparent defeat (—> apparently a defeat), the late president (—> till lately the president).

4)adjectives formed from nouns: a criminal lawyer, an atomic student, a woollen dress, etc.

Adjectives that can be used only predicatively are fewer in number. They tend to refer to a (possibly temporary) condition rather than to characterize the noun. The most commonly used predicative adjectives are: able, conscious, fond, glad, ill, subject,

{un)well; ablaze, afloat, afraid, aghast, alight, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, averse, awake, aware.

II. Adjectives are generally stative (see also "Verbs", § 2). Many of them, however, may be treated as dynamic. Stative and

dynamic adjectives differ in some ways, e.g. the link-verb to be in combination with dynamic adjectives can have the continuous form or be used in the imperative mood.

Stative adjectives do not admit of such forms (e.g. *He is being tall. *Be tall!).

To the group of dynamic adjectives belong: adorable, ambitious, awkward, brave, calm, careful, careless, cheerful, clever, complacent, conceited, cruel, disagreeable, dull, enthusiastic, extravagant, foolish, friendly, funny, generous, gentle, good, greedy, hasty, helpful, irritating, jealous, kind, lenient, loyal, mischievous, naughty, nice, noisy, (im)patient, reasonable, rude, sensible, serious, shy, slow, spiteful, stubborn, stupid, suspicious, tactful, talkative, thoughtful, tidy, timid, troublesome, vain, vulgar, wicked, witty, etc.

e.g. I'm sure Nick will understand that it's only for his own good that you're being so unkind.

In those days a woman did not contradict a man's opinion when he was being serious.

III. Adjectives are also distinguished as gradable and nongradable. Most adjectives are gradable. That means that they can be modified by adverbs of degree and themselves change for de-

e.g. pale — paler — palest

The second method is used for: a)most disyllabic adjectives,

e.g. careful — more careful — most careful private — more private — most private

b)adjectives of more than two syllables,

e.g. personal — more personal — most personal beautiful — more beautiful — most beautiful

c) adjectives formed from participles and ing-forms,

e.g. tired — more tired —- most tired

interesting — more interesting — most interesting d)adjectives used only predicatively,

e.g. afraid — more afraid aware — more aware

The superlative degree of predicative adjectives in (d) is hard-ly ever used in English.

Note. Care should be taken to remember that most when used before an adjective does not always form the superlative degree. It may have the meaning of

'very', 'extremely7. Then it is preceded by the indefinite article. e.g. He was a most interesting man.

A few adjectives have irregular forms for the degrees of comparison. They are:

good — better — best bad — worse — worst

far — farther — farthest (for distance) further — furthest (for time and distance) near — nearer — nearest (for distance) next (for order)

late — later — latest (for time) last (for order)

old — older — oldest (for age)

elder — eldest (for seniority rather than age; used only attributively)

Non-gradable adjectives, on account of their meaning, do not admit of comparison at all, e.g. daily, empty, full, perfect, round, square, unique, upper, wooden and some others.

The comparative degree is used when there are two objects, actions or phenomena compared or contrasted,

e.g. She had the kind of heart trouble that comes to much older people.

He found the work easier than he had expected.

I was now a more experienced man and it was not easy to deceive me.

His reading was more extensive than ever before.

The superlative degree is used when an object, an action or a phenomenon is compared or contrasted with more than two objects, actions or phenomena,

e.g. At that time I worshipped Manet. His "Olympia" seemed to