Grammatika_sovremennogo_angliyskogo_y
.pdfthe action of the principal clause. Therefore, should is never combined with the Perfect infinitive in such constructions.
As a rule, object clauses after all those predicates are also introduced by the conjunction that; asyndetic connection is not common.
Note that the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed when should + infinitive or the Subjunctive Mood is used.
e.g. It is arranged that he have (should have) the lab all to himself. It was arranged that he have (should have) the lab all to
himself.
§ 132. In object clauses after the verb to wish we find the form of the Past Indefinite (or the form were) or the Past Perfect to express a wish which cannot be fulfilled or a hardly realizable wish.
e.g. I wish I deserved your compliments. I don't. I wish you had asked me anything but that. I wish it were true.
I wished that Thomas hadn't brought me there.
Note. For a realizable wish other verbs and constructions are used,
e.g. I want to see him. I want him to come.
I should like to talk to you.
I should like him to call me up. I wish to see it for myself.
I wish him to do something for me.
Object clauses after the verb to wish are usually joined to the principal clause asyndetically, though sometimes the conjunction that is found.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this construction. In object clauses after the verb to wish the tense forms indicate the following:
a) The use of the Past Indefinite form shows that the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause,
e.g. I wish(ed) he were with us.
b) If the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, the form of the Past Perfect is used.
e.g. I wish(ed) he had stayed at home.
c) When the action of the object clause follows that of the principal clause, we find the modal verbs would + infintive, might + infinitive and could + infinitive in the subordinate clause.
e.g. I wish(ed) the child would show more affection for me. I wish(ed) I could drop the whole matter.
I wish(ed) you might stay with us a little longer.
Note 1. However, could + infinitive and might + infinitive may also be used to express a simultaneous action.
e.g. I wish 1 could understand you. I wish he might be here.
Note 2. It should be noted that would + infinitive is not common with the first person.
As all these forms express an unrealizable wish, they serve as expressions of regret rather than wish. That is why they may be rendered in Russian in two ways. Thus the sentence / wish I knew it, where the actions in both clauses are simultaneous, may be translated as or ,
. When the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, there is only one way of rendering such sentences in Russian, namely , .. . For example, the sentence / wish I had told him about it is translated as , . Thus, where the verb in the object clause is affirmative in English, it is negative in Russian, and vice versa.
e.g. I wish I had told him the truth. ( ,
.)
I wish I hadn't acted like that. ( , .)
When the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the principal clause, it is not necessary to translate the modal verbs into Russian; the usual way of rendering such sentences is
... .
e-g. I wish he would tell me everything. ( ,
.)
I wish I could (might) go round the world. ( -
.)
Note. I wish you would + infinitive has become a set phrase and is an equivalent of the Imperative Mood; it is emotionally coloured.
e.g. I wish you would keep quiet. I wish you would stop it.
Compare it with the Russian , .
§ 133. After the idiomatic phrase it is time (also it is high time, it is about time) we find the form of the Past Indefinite (or the form were).
e.g. "Now let's talk." "Yes," she said quietly, "it's time we did,
Arnie." (= )
It's high time we got rid of our old furniture. (=
)
It's high time you were in bed too, my child. He said: "It's time we ordered dinner."
Clauses of this kind are usually joined to the principal clause asyndetically.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this kind of clauses.
e.g. It's time we had lunch. It was time we had lunch.
§ 134. After expressions of fear, such as to be afraid, to be fearful, to be frightened, to be in terror, to be nervous, to be terrified, to be troubled, to fear, to have apprehension, to tremble and others, we commonly find the Indicative Mood in the object clause. Care should be taken to observe the rules of the sequence of tenses.
e.g. I am afraid nothing has been done yet. She was afraid that he had seen her.
I was afraid you were going to strike him.
§ 135. Occasionally we also find may + infinitive in object clauses after expressions of fear. The rules of the sequence of tenses are also observed in this case.
e.g. She's afraid he may miss his only chance.
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She was afraid he might miss his only chance.
But in literary style, object clauses are sometimes introduced by the conjunction lest. In this case should + infinitive (rarely the Subjunctive Mood) is used in the object clause. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here.
e.g. They were terrified lest someone should discover their secret hiding place.
An hour before his train was due he began to have apprehension lest he should miss it.
He seemed nervous lest, in thus announcing his intentions, he should be setting his granddaughter a bad example.
§ 136. In object clauses introduced by the conjunctions if and whether after expressions of doubt and negative expressions we sometimes find the form were.
e.g. He would wonder for a moment, looking into her shining eyes, if it were true.
He did not ask himself if she were pretty.
When they were back in their seats, Maurice asked Adeline if she were still enjoying the play.
Generally we find the Indicative Mood in such clauses; the use of the above mentioned form is characteristic of literary style; it is a survival of the old use of the Subjunctive Mood.
The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality
in Appositive and Predicative Clauses
§ 137. In appositive clauses which are usually introduced by the conjunction that the use of different forms of the predicate depends on the lexical character of the noun they modify.
As a rule, the Indicative Mood is found in this kind of clauses. The rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed in this case.
e-g. The idea that he thought himself anything but intelligent was absurd.
He is under the impression that I am hiding something from him.
§ 138. But should + infinitive (or rarely the Subjunctive Mood) is used in appositive clauses after nouns expressing order, suggestion, wish, agreement and decision, such as agreement, ambition, decision, demand, desire, order, proposal, recommendation, request, require ment, suggestion, understanding, wish and some others.
e.g. He told me of his desire that all should be happy as long as it involved no inconvenience to himself.
He had supported them for years, but on the understanding that they should live in Europe.
I'm afraid you'll have to go to him with the suggestion that
he dismiss the case.
There was no likelihood that anyone should be there.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in this case.
§ 139. The same rules hold good for predicative clauses — generally the Indicative Mood is used in them.
e.g. The question is how we are going to find the means to do it.
The fact was that I hardly knew what to say. The trouble is that he didn't find him in.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are observed in this case.
§ 140. But when the subject of the principal clause is expressed by one of such nouns as aim, arrangement, condition, decision, idea, plan, proposal, suggestion, wish and some others, should + infinitive is used in the subordinate clause. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed,
e.g. My suggestion is that as soon as the rain lets up we should go along there and see what we can do.
His desire was that life should fall in with his own limited but deliberate plans.
The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality in Adverbial Clauses
§ 141. Forms expressing unreality are found in clauses of purpose, comparison, concession and in both the principal and the subordinate clause of a conditional sentence.
Adverbial Clauses of Purpose
§ 142. An adverbial modifier of purpose is usually expressed by an infinitive when the agent of that infinitive is the same as the subject in the sentence.
e.g. He said that he was going out to buy some stationary. He went up to his room to change.
The infinitive may sometimes {though not often) be preceded by in order or so as.
e.g. I had to keep drinking coffee in order to stay awake.
You'd better wait outside so as to be at hand if I want you. So as is more often used to introduce a negative infinitive,
e.g. She sat still so as not to disturb the dog.
§ 143. A subordinate clause of purpose is found when the subject of this clause is not the same as the subject of the principal clause.
Clauses of purpose are introduced by the conjunction so that (sometimes that or in order that, both of which are characteristic of literary style, and so, which is colloquial). The predicate in these clauses is expressed by may or can + infinitive and the rules of the sequence of tenses are to be observed in this case.
e.g. As you go, leave the door open so that the light from the lamp may show you some of the way down.
She dressed quickly for dinner so that she might see him the sooner.
You'll have to come into the hospital so that we can keep you under observation.
He slid out of bed, felt his way over to the door of the room, and opened it a little so that he could hear what the women were saying.
If the verb in the subordinate clause is in the negative form, should + infinitive is preferred.
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e-g. I stood up, my back turned so that he should not see my face. "Sit down," he said, dropping his voice so that the two men in the room should not hear.
In literary style we sometimes find clauses of purpose introduced by the conjunction lest ... ). l In this case should + infinitive (rarely the Subjunctive Mood) is used in the subordinate clause. As the conjunction lest is negative in meaning, the verb is in the affirmative form,
e.g. An access of joy made him shut his eyes lest tears should flow from them, (... .)
withdrew his eyes lest she should read them.
Lest he freeze, he wore a ragged sweater over the ensemble.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here. Sometimes, though not often, the Indicative Mood (the Future Indefinite) is used in adverbial clauses of purpose instead of modal phrases.
e.g. I, too, want to live in London so that the children will have someone to turn to in case anything should happen to them. She gave him the key so that he would lock the car.
Adverbial Clauses of Comparison
§ 144. In clauses of comparison introduced by the conjunctions as if or as though we find the form of the Past Indefinite including the form were for all the persons or the Past Perfect.
The form of the Past Indefinite (or Continuous) shows that the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action of the principal clause.
e.g. He asked me the question as if the answer were really impor-
tant to him.
He looks as though he had plenty of determination.
They passed her in silence, with their noses in the air, as though she did not exist.
Her lips moved soundlessly, as if she were rehearsing.
Note. In contemporary English the form were is sometimes replaced by was in the 1st and 3d persons singular,
e.g. He behaves as if he was the boss here.
1 This conjunction should not be confused with the homonymous conjunction lest which is used to introduce object clauses after expressions of fear. The latter is not negative in meaning.
The form of the Past Perfect (Continuous) shows that the action of the subordinate clause precedes the action of the principal clause.
e.g. Bosinney gazed at him as though he had not heard.
The dog rushed at me and licked my hands in a frenzy of delight as if I had been away a long time.
He sounded breathless on the telephone as though he had been running.
If the action of the subordinate clause follows the action of the principal clause, would + infinitive is used.
e.g. She sank back on her chair and leaning her head on her hands began to weep as though her heart would break.
She looked up at me defiantly as if she would turn on me that very moment.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in such clauses.
Note 1. Compare complex sentences with a clause of comparison in Russian and in English.
e.g. , . — She looked at me as
if she did not recognize me.
, . — spoke of the film as if he had seen it.
In Russian it is generally necessary to use the correlative in the principal clause, whereas in English it is not required.
Note 2. Clauses introduced by as if and as though are treated as predicative clauses when they follow the verbs to look, to sound, to feel.
e.g. At first he sounded as though he were trying to avoid a scene. She was so ill that for days it looked as if she would die.
The man looked as though he had once been a miner.
Complex Sentences with a Subordinate Clause of Condition
§ 145. Complex sentences with a subordinate clause of condition (conditional sentences)1 may be divided into two groups: sentences of real condition and sentences of unreal condition.
1 In conditional sentences forms expressing unreality are used in both the principal clause and in the subordinate clause (the if-clause), whereas in all the previously
described types of sentences forms expressing unreality are found only in subordinate clauses.
In sentences of real condition we find the Indicative Mood. They usually refer to the future, so the Future tense is used in the principal clause and the present tense in the if-clause.
e.g. If you continue in this way you'll break your mother's heart. You won't be believed if you tell the truth.
Sentences of real condition may also refer to the present or past, though not very often.
e.g. I always lose money if I bet.
In the evenings we played chess or strolled about if it was fine.
It should be noted that sentences of the latter kind express regularly occurring actions.
Clauses of condition are usually joined to the principal clause by means of the conjunction if and are therefore called if-clauses. There are other conjunctions which serve to introduce clauses of condition, but their use is not so common. They are: unless, in case, supposing (suppose) that, providing (provided) that, on condi tion that.
Note. If has the most general meaning of all the conjunctions introducing clauses of condition. Its use is not restricted in any way, whereas all the other conjunctions are limited in their application either for semantic or stylistic reasons. Roughly unless means 'if...not'. However, there is a difference between them: unless has the more exclusive meaning of 'only if... not' or 'except on condition that'. The most adequate way of rendering this conjunction in Russian is
.
e.g. We never part with things, you know, unless we want something in their place. "Does the professor know?" "No. And he won't unless it is absolutely necessary."
While if ... not can be used instead of unless, though the clause will be deprived of the above mentioned specific shade of meaning, unless cannot always
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serve as a substitute for if ... not. For example, unless cannot be used in the following sentence:
e.g. If your wife doesn't like the ring, I'll be happy to exchange it any time.
In case also has a specific shade of meaning implying purpose as well as condition. It should be rendered in Russian as m m , .
e.g. I'd like the doctor handy in case she feels worse.
I've made provision in case anything happens to me.
Supposing (that) and suppose (that) preserve the meaning of supposition as their origin from the verb to suppose is still strongly felt. They are best of all rendered in Russian by means of and are found in the following kinds of sentences:
e.g. Suppose he doesn't turn up, what shall we do? What will his uncle think of him, supposing it's true?
Providing (that) and provided (that) are rather narrow in meaning indicating a favourable and desirable condition, which is explained by their connection with the verb to provide. Besides, they are rather formal stylistically, being more typical of official documents. The closest Russian equivalents are , ,
.
e.g. But so long as a Forsyte got what he was after, he was not too particular about
the means, provided appearances were saved.
We are prepared to sign the agreement providing that you guarantee the high quality of the goods.
On condition (that) is also connected with its original meaning ( ) and at the same time it is restricted stylistically, being more formal than if.
e.g. I will agree to this year's budget on condition that we drop this foreign business in future.
All these conjunctions may be used in sentences of both real and unreal condition.
§ 146. In sentences of unreal condition we find forms expressing unreality: the form of the Past Indefinite or the Past Perfect is used in the if-clause, and the Conditional Mood (Present and Past) is used in the principal clause.
The action of the if-clause is represented by the speaker as contradicting reality; consequently the action of the principal clause, which depends on this unreal condition, cannot be realized either.
When a sentence of unreal condition refers to the present or future, the form of the Past Indefinite is used in the if-clause and the Present Conditional Mood in the principal clause.
e.g. How nice it would be for Mother if we had a car.
You ought to know your uncle by this time. He's just like a child. He'd be a pauper tomorrow if I didn't see to things.
If the hospital were not so overcrowded, he said, he would recommend that she should be taken there.
When a sentence of unreal condition refers to the past, we find the form of the Past Perfect in the if-clause and the Past Conditional Mood in the principal clause.
e.g. It would have been too wonderful if he had said that. But he
didn't.
Of course, all this wouldn't have happened if the girl hadn't
been so excited.
I should have been sorry if I hadn't spoken.
§ 147. Note the following construction which may be used with reference either to the present or to the past.
e.g, "Oh," Maurice went on, "if it weren't for my mother I should
be unhappy at home."
"Mrs Davidson was saying she didn't know how they'd have got through the journey if it hadn't been for us," she said.
If it were not for his friend Crowdy, he would be in financial difficulties.
§ 148. The if-clause and the principal clause need not necessarily refer to the same time: the if-clause may refer to the present and future and the principal clause may refer to the past, and vice versa. Sentences of this kind are called a split condition.
e.g. If you were not so indifferent to him you would have noticed that there was something happening to him.
You must remember if Mr Reed hadn't taken me out of the drawing office, I should be there now getting two pounds a week.
§ 149. Sentences of unreal condition referring to the future may be of four types: l
1) The first type has already been described: the Past Indefinite is used in the if-clause and the Present Conditional Mood in the principal clause.
e.g. Half of the people would distrust you if you went away at such a moment.
If we allowed him to go on with his experiments we would never have any peace.
1 Conditional sentences referring to the future, no matter what forms of the verb are used in them, are always hypothetical, because one can never be sure of the actual course of events in the future. But these future actions may be represented differently by the speaker: either as an actual fact (when the Indicative Mood is used) or as actions contradicting reality or problematic actions (see § 149).
The action is represented in such sentences as contradicting reality — the speaker does not believe that it can be realized in the future.
2) As the above type of conditional sentences may refer to both the present and the future, there is a strong tendency in English to use another type which is unambiguous, in order to show that the action refers only to the future and not to the present.
In this type of conditional sentences we find the form were of the modal verb to be to followed by an infinitive in the if-clause. In the principal clause the Conditional Mood is used.
e.g. Mother would resist it bitterly if I were to ask for breakfast at this hour.
If we were to take this man in hand for three months he would become as soft as wax.
If young Adeline were to occupy the room it would look so different.
If Meg were to repay you the fifteen dollars you lent her, what would you do with the money?
He had lately thought much about what he would do if he were to meet them.
This second type differs from the first type in that it emphasizes the tentative character of the condition.
3) Should + infinitive is used in the if-clause and the Future Indefinite of the Indicative Mood in the principal clause.
e.g. I don't expect any telephone calls tonight. But if anyone should call, the butler will say I've gone on a visit to some
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of my relatives.
If the other conclusion should be correct the slight loss of time will make no difference.
The Imperative Mood may also be used in the principal clause.
e.g. Better employ a solicitor. Sir, in case anything should arise. If she should leave, keep an eye on her.
This third type of conditional sentences referring to the future differs from the first two types in that it shows that the realization of the action is represented as possible though unlikely (but not contradicting reality as in the first two types). The if-clause of the third type may be rendered in Russian as
..., ,
... ... . We may say that the realization of the action depends on some contingency. In this type of sentences the clause of condition is rather often introduced by the conjunction in case.
e.g. I'll let you know in case there should be some unavoidable
delay.
I' ll be at the flat all evening in case you should change your mind.
The clause of condition introduced by this conjunction acquires the meaning of , ; .
4) Sometimes would + infinitive is used in the if-clause and the Present Conditional Mood in the principal clause.
e.g. If he would only trust me, we would get on much better.
I'd love it if you would call me Eliza.
Would + infinitive expresses consent or willingness (=
... ...).
A sentence of this type is often a conditional sentence only in form; it is actually a polite request (see the last example above).
§ 150. The modal verbs can and may can also be found in conditional sentences. If they occur in if-clauses referring to the present or future, they have the past form.
e.g. If I could be a writer I should write detective stories.
His bedroom is very cold. If I might move him into your study he would feel more cheerful there.
In the principal clause we generally use the Conditional Mood. But as can and may are defective verbs and cannot be used in the Conditional Mood, the past tense of these verbs is used in combination with the simple infinitive to refer the action to the present or future.
e.g. I could try to make the place comfortable with more heart if the sun were shining.
If you had any office training it might be possible to use you
up here.
When reference is made to the past, could and might are combined with the Perfect infinitive (both in the if-clause and in the principal clause).
e.g. Yet if she could have seen me there, she would have been a little puzzled.
If I hadn't been there something very unpleasant might have happened to him.
§ 151. A clause of unreal condition may be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. In that case it always precedes the principal clause and we find inversion in the subordinate clause — the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
e.g. Had Irene been present, the family circle would have been complete.
Should you want to do so you can withdraw your money at any time.
As is seen from the above examples, asyndetic connection is possible only when the predicate of the subordinate clause is an analytical form (or a modal phrase). This construction is emphatic and characteristic only of literary style.
Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Concession
§ 152. Complex sentences with a clause of concession introduced by the conjunction even if or even though are built up on the same pattern as sentences of unreal condition — the form of the Past Indefinite or the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause and the Conditional Mood, Present or Past, in the principal clause.
e.g. But even if you were right, I should be prepared for any contingency.
Even if I had been a stranger he would have talked of his misfortune.
Note. In complex sentences with a clause of concession introduced by though, although, whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, however, wherever, no matter how the Indicative Mood is used in both clauses.
e.g.. And when we settle down, wherever it is, you'll have a garden, Chris.
In literary style may {might) + infinitive is occasionally used in clauses of concession to lay stress on the meaning of supposition.
e.g. Whatever his invitation may mean, I'm going to accept it.
He said he would be glad to fulfil the conditions whatever they might be.
The Use of Forms Expressing Unreality
in a Special Type of Exclamatory Sentences
§ 153. The form of the Past Indefinite including the form were is used in the following type of exclamatory sentences to express a wish which cannot be fulfilled.
e.g. Oh, if only Daddy were home! Oh, if only I knew what to do!
In the above examples reference is made to the present. With reference to the past the form of the Past Perfect is used,
e.g. Oh, if only he had given me a chance!
When the sentence refers to the future we find would + infinitive or could + infinitive,
e.g. If it would only stop raining for a single day! Oh, if only you would see a doctor!
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