Grammatika_sovremennogo_angliyskogo_y
.pdfbody, nobody, anybody, everybody, someone, no one, anyone, everyone, something, nothing, anything, everything as well as the interrogative pronouns what and who.
e.g. "Have you got anything to eat?" Katherine askedThe sergeant said they had nothing to do there. It's been wonderful having someone to help.
"I haven't finished yet." "What is there to finish?"
The infinitive is also freely combined with ordinal numerals (mainly with the first) and the substantivized adjective the last which always have the function of the predicative in the sentence,
e.g. He was always the first to enter the dining-room and the last
to leave.
Andrew was the third to be interviewed.
The infinitive also serves as an attribute to nouns which are preceded by ordinal numerals or the adjective last.
e.g. He was the first man ever to discuss the philosophy of science with Erik.
The film star Ann Wilson is the 34th actress to play this
part on the London stage.
Dear Steve, your last letter to reach me was two months old.
The infinitive may also serve as an attribute of pronouns and pronominal expressions of quantity such as much, little, enough, no more, little more, a great deal, a lot, plenty, etc.
e.g. I've got a lot to be thankful for.
I thought you had quite enough to do looking after the house and so forth.
You are leaving me very little to say. You've got so much to learn.
Occasionally the infinitive is used to modify the prop-word one. e.g. If you, boys, want to go on I'm not the one to spoil the game. He wasn't an easy one to make friends with.
§ 204. The infinitive in the function of attribute is characterized by specific meanings. They are determined by the relation between the head-word and the infinitive. These relations may
be of two kinds:
1) The head-word may be either the subject or the object of the action expressed by the infinitive. When the head-word serves
as the subject of the infinitive it may be either active or passive, depending on the active (a) or passive (b) form of the infinitive.
e.g. a) He was not the man to draw back when his dignity was concerned.
She pitied the poor young man for having no one to look after him.
b)Remember, Roger is a man to be watched. There is nothing to be gained by pretending.
The head-word of an active infinitive may also be an object of the action expressed by this infinitive.
e.g. Love? It's a funny word to use.
Except in little things, he was the hardest man to influence. There was really nothing to fear.
In all the above examples we find the infinitive of verbs re-
quiring a direct object. If a verb requires a prepositional object, the preposition follows the verb.
e.g. I'm not a very easy man to get on with. I had nothing to worry about.
He realized that he didn't know anyone here to talk to except Max.
If the infinitive is a link-verb followed by an adjective which requires a prepositional object, the preposition is placed after the adjective.
e.g. We have, all of us here, a good deal to be thankful for, I'm sure you have nothing to be afraid of.
I'm afraid I haven't much to be proud of.
If the head-word is the subject, active or passive, or the object of the action denoted by the infinitive, the latter acquires modal meaning. Depending on the context, it may denote either possibility (a) or necessity (b).
e-g. a) Marion was not the type to put on weight. He was not the man to do rash things.
There was nothing to be seen or heard, not even a barking dog.
I had nobody to talk to.
Is there a place to get something to eat near here?
b) Whenever there is any packing to be done, my wife doesn't feel well.
I've got something dreadful to tell you.
There was a quarter of an hour to kill, so we walked down the river.
There is always a question or two to be considered. I've got enough to do without bothering about you.
Note that the infinitive is not lexically dependent here. It can modify practically any noun, concrete or abstract, as well as noun equivalents (see the examples above).
Note. There is, however, one exception to the rule — the ordinal numerals and the last (or nouns modified by them) always serve as the subject of the infinitive but the infinitive does not acquire the additional modal meanings of possibility or necessity in this case.
e.g. He was the first to speak.
2) The head-noun may be neither the subject nor the object of the action expressed by the infinitive as attribute. In this case it acquires appositive meaning, i.e. it serves to explain the meaning of its head-noun. That is why it can modify only those abstract nouns that admit of or sometimes even require an explanation of their meaning. So the use of the infinitive with appositive meaning is lexically dependent.
The number of nouns with which it is used is quite considerable. The most commonly occurring of them are: ability, advice, attempt, authority (= right), capacity, chance, command, compul sion, decision, demand, desire, determination, duty, eagerness, effort, excuse, failure, freedom, impulse, inclination, instruction, intention, invitation, keenness, license, longing, matter, motion (= proposal), necessity, need, obligation, occasion, offer, opportuni ty, option, order, patience, permission, possibility, power (= right), precaution, promise, proposal, readiness, recommendation, refusal, reluctance, resistance, resolution, right, sign, suggestion, tempta
: PRESSI ( HERSON )
tion, tendency, urge, way, will, willingness, wish and some others.
e.g. He had a keen desire to learn. He had an impulse to run away.
He made an effort to collect himself.
He accepted willingly my invitation to remain for a few days in my apartment.
He's given me permission to talk to you myself. You've no right to ask those questions.
Her eyes had a tendency to shift from point to point about the room.
He bit back the urge to tell a lie.
Ralph was glad of a chance to change the subject.
For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the infinitive see "Verbs", § 166. (For comparison with the ingiorm see §§ 227-230, 242.)
§ 205. When the head-noun is neither the subject nor the object of the action expressed by the infinitive in the attributive function, the latter may acquire the meaning of consequence. This is found in certain sentence patterns or when the head-noun has special modifiers.
1) In the sentence pattern "have (get, possess, lack) + the + noun + infinitive".
e.g. He had the courage to tell them what he thought of them. She had the nerve to tell me a lie!
The action of the infinitive is made possible owing to the quality expressed by the head-noun.
The infinitive is lexically dependent in this sentence pattern — it modifies a number of nouns that denote mental or moral qualities. The most commonly occurring of them are: assurance, audacity, authority, cheek, courage, cruelty, decency, energy, experi ence, foolishness, good (bad) taste, guts, heart (= courage), humility, ignorance, imagination, impertinence, ingenuity, intelligence, knowledge, nerve, patience, power, presence of mind, sense, spirit, strength, stupidity, tolerance, vanity, willingness, will power, wit(s) and some others.
e.g. They had the cheek to run away.
Why haven't you got the wit to invent something?
She lacks the knowledge to do it the way it should be done. I can't think how you can have the impertinence to remain here. She possessed the will power to achieve her aim.
The subject of the infinitive in this function is the same as that of the predicate verb.
2) When the infinitive serves as an attribute of a noun modified by enough. The noun can have different functions in the sentence. The infinitive is not lexically dependent here.
e.g. There wasn't enough air to stir the leaves of the lime trees. He isn't fool enough to believe that sort of thing.
We need every man who has got enough spirit to say what he really thinks.
I noticed her curious trick of throwing questions at me when I could not have enough knowledge to answer.
For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the infinitive see "Verbs", § 166.
3) When the inifinitive serves as an attribute of a noun predicative modified by an adjective that is preceded by too. The infinitive is not lexically dependent here. (For the place of the article see "Articles", § 66.)
e.g. He was too clever a man to be bluffed.
This is too serious a business to be trifled with.
The action of the infinitive is made impossible owing to the excessive degree of the quality expressed by the adjective that modifies the head-noun.
For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the infinitive see "Verbs", § 166.
4) In a sentence pattern where we find the correlative conjunction such ... as.
e.g. He can't have been such a fool as to give them a definite answer right away.
The use of the infinitive of consequence in the last three sentence patterns is not of frequent occurrence.
§ 206. The infinitive may be used as attribute in a special sentence pattern with a formal it as subject. The infinitive is lexically dependent here — it can modify a more or less limited number of nouns. Among them we find such se-mantically "pale" nouns as action, business, experience, idea, matter, problem, question, stuff task, thing, way. As a rule, these nouns are modified by adjectives which are semantically more important than the nouns themselves. The most frequently occurring other nouns are: achievement, (dis)advantage, comfort, consolation, cruelty, custom, de light, desire, dream, duty, embarrassment, encouragement, error, folly, frustration, fun, habit, hell, honour, intention, job, joy, luxury, madness, miracle, misfortune, mistake, nonsense, outrage, pity, plan, pleasure, privilege, relief, rule, shame, surprise, torture, treat, triumph, trouble, wonder and some others. The infinitive has appositive meaning in this sentence pattern.
e.g. It's a good idea to use both methods. It's our job to worry about that, isn't it? It was a mistake to deny it.
But it was a surprise to hear him insisting on it.
It was utter nonsense to suggest that he was lying.
It was my intention to show her how greatly she had underestimated me.
"It must be a terrible thing to have received a classical education," she said soberly.
It's a great disadvantage to be held back by middle-class morality.
It was a bitter experience for Philip to learn that his best friend had let him down.
For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the infinitive see "Verbs", § 166.
(For comparison with the ing-form see §§ 231 and 243.)
§ 207. The infinitive is also used as attribute in a sentence pattern with it as a formal object of a verb. It is mainly found after the verbs to find, to make and to think.
: PRESSI ( HERSON )
e.g. I think Helena finds it rather a lot of work to clean the place. Everyone now called him Reggie, but he still found it an effort to get used to it.
He thought it great fun to be out boating.
He made it a point to call her by her first name. He had made it a rule to get up at sunrise.
He found it a good idea to send them a telegram.
For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the infinitive see "Verbs", § 166.
The construction is not of frequent use in English though it is not restricted to any style.
(For comparison with the ing-form see § 232.)
The Infinitive as Parenthesis
§ 208. The infinitive as parenthesis is used with to. It is generally a set phrase, such as so to speak, strange (needless) to say, to be quite frank, to make matters worse, to put it mildly (crudely), to say the least, to tell the truth and some others.
The infinitive phrase as parenthesis serves either to show the speaker's attitude towards the situation described in the sentence or to attract attention to some fact or to sum up an idea, and, last but not least, it may serve as some sort of reservation on the part of the speaker.
e.g. To tell the truth, I'm sick and tired of this nonsense. To put it mildly, she is just a bit inquisitive.
To make matters worse, it began to rain and soon we got wet to the skin.
When they found out I was not one of them, so to speak, they politely turned from me and ignored me.
The place of the parenthetic phrase in the sentence is not fixed though it is actually often found at the head of the sentence. In writing it is marked off by a comma.
The Use of the ing-form
The ing-form as Subject
§ 209. The ing-form in the function of subject usually expresses permanent or recurrent actions simultaneous with the action expressed by the predicate verb,
e.g. Looking after one man is really enough, but two is rather an
undertaking.
Passing a law about equal rights doesn't necessarily mean that women get them.
For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted
by the ing-form see "Verbs", § 166.
Sentences with the ing-form as subject have certain structural peculiarities:
1)We find the ing-form as subject only in declarative sentences. It is never used in interrogative sentences.
2)The ing-form as subject is always placed at the head of the sentence. It is never preceded by any secondary parts.
3)The ing-form as subject is occasionally found in sentences beginning with there is, but its use is restricted to negative sen-
tences where it is usually preceded by no. This pattern is common in spoken English.
e.g. There was no arguing with her about it when she had made up her mind.
Well, there is no avoiding him now.
Of course, I am scared to hell. There's no denying that.
On the whole, however, the use of the ing-form as subject is mainly found in literary English but even here it is not of frequent occurrence.
(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 181 and 235.)
The ing-form as Predicative
§ 210. The ing-form as predicative is usually used after the link-verbs to be, to mean and to look and has appositive meaning.
e.g. The important part is helping people so that they can live normal lives.
I can't ask him for help. That would mean telling him everything about you and myself.
For the means of expressing the subject of the action denoted by the ing-form see "Verbs", § 166.
The ing-form as predicative is often preceded by like. It also has appositive meaning here, but the explanation is made by way of comparison.
e.g. To read his novels was like swimming in a lake so clear that you could see the bottom.
At the time their quarrel looked like going on for ever. Andrew looked like a small boy being teased.
Instances of the ing-form as predicative are scarce.
Note. The ing-form as predicative is sometimes adjectivized.
e.g. That must be enormously exciting.
The journey was slow, rough and tiring and took us eleven days. Hugh's tone got more and more insulting.
If the ing-form, were not adjectivized it would be taken for a continuous form. e.g. The quarrel ought to be stopped. They are insulting each other.
(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 182 and 236.)
The ing-form as Predicate
§ 211. The ing-iorm, as predicate is restricted to two sentence patterns:
1) interrogative sentences beginning with what about and how about and implying suggestion,
e.g. What about going to London?
How about seeing what they are doing now?
2) exclamatory sentences expressing indignation,
e.g. But letting him do it!
Sentences of both kinds are quite common in spoken English. (For comparison with the infinitive see § 183.)
The ing-form as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate
: PRESSI ( HERSON )
§ 212. The ing form is lexically dependent in this function — it is used after a number of verbs denoting motion or position.
They are: to come, to disappear, to go, to go out (round, around, about), to lie, to sit, to sit around (round), to stand, to stand around (round).
e.g. They came rushing in, laughing.
They had often gone fishing in those days. Are we going out dancing tonight?
He went about sniffing the air but there was no trace of gas. They all sat around feeling very proud.
"I'm ready," he said to Maurice and stood waiting.
Next morning I woke early and lay listening to the clatter of dishes in the kitchen.
He disappeared walking, there was no noise, nothing.
The two verbs of the combination form a close sense-unit. The first component has a weakened meaning and mainly serves as a finite verb, while the meaning of the ing-form is quite prominent and determines the meaning of the whole combination.
e.g. In that mood I entered the bedroom, where Sheila was lying reading, her book near the bedside lamp.
Sometimes she fell into despondency and sat doing nothing at all, neither reading nor sewing for half an hour at a time.
Note. Note the following set phrases:
e.g. I burst out laughing, and the others followed. All at once she burst out crying.
(For comparison with the infinitive see § 184.)
The ing-form as a Second Action Accompanying
the astion of the predicate verb. the Action of the Predicate Verb
§ 213. The ing-form may express a second action accomanying the action expressed by the predicate verb. The subject of the ing-form is the same as the subject of the sentence.
The ing-form in this function refers not to the predicate verb alone but to the whole predicate group. It does not form any close sense-unit with the predicate verb and can be found with verbal as well as with nominal predicates.
The ing-form is not lexically dependent in this function.
e.g. They ran up the stairs brimming with excitement. ou can't just sit there being talked about.
I felt uneasy being alone with him in that large house. Martha was upstairs getting ready.
When I looked up he was still there waiting for me. She was sitting in the doorway of the tent reading.
As a rule, the ing-form follows the predicate group (see the examples above). But it may also be placed at the head of the sentence or between the subject and the predicate,
e.g. Coming into my office one evening in the autumn, he said
shyly: "Doing anything tonight?"
Watching them with bold, excited eyes, Simon discussed their characters.
I made to go out, but Roger, frowning, shook his head.
In the taxi going home, Margaret, holding my hand against her cheek, said: "You made a mistake, you know."
Note 1. When the ing-form is used to denote a second action, it is often sepa-
rated by a comma from the rest of the sentence.
Note 2. The ing-forms of certain verbs have come to be used as prepositions or conjunctions. Care should be taken to distinguish them from the real ing forms.
e.g. Several officials, including me, had been invited.
He says he will be at the meeting place for three nights running next week beginning on Monday.
Well, considering that Hector's a politician, you can't say that he's altogether a fool.
Presuming the old man gets better and comes back to the job, then what? Supposing you sold the land, what could you get for it?
"That will be all right, barring accidents" I told him at once.
Note 3. Note that taking all things into consideration (account) has become a set phrase,
e.g. Taking all things into consideration, I decided to tear my letter up. In the vast majority of sentences we find a simple ing-iorm
which expresses an action simultaneous with that of the predicate verb (see the examples above). Yet if both the predicate verb and the ing-form are expressed by terminative verbs, the action of the ing-form precedes that of the predicate verb. The ing-form in this case is placed before the predicate,
e.g. Turning to his hostess, he remarked: "It's been a nice day." (=He first turned to his hostess and then remarked.)
Recovering from his excitement, he became practical again. Smith, turning to him, gave a serious contented smile.
The use of the perfect ing-form, though quite possible, is not
of frequent occurrence. It shows that the action of the ing-form precedes that of the predicate verb. The Perfect ing-form is often
placed before the predicate verb.
e.g. Having duly arrived in Scotland, he took a train the next day
to Manchester.
Having cut her dirty bandage, John started tying her hand. Having gradually wasted his small fortune, he preferred to live on the generosity of others rather than work.
Francis was there before me, having come by the morning train.
Norman, having looked at his watch, slapped the play-script shut and put it on his chair.
As has been said, the subject of the ing form is usually the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence (see the examples above). Occasionally, however, we come across instances of the ing form whose subject is expressed elsewhere, for instance, by one of the secondary parts of the sentence.
e.g. Walking beside his friend, it seemed to Norman that life was not so bad after all.
But back in his office, looking down at his desk, his sense of well-being left him.
I love you like hell, Bridget. And, loving you like hell, you can't expect me to enjoy seeing you get married to a potbellied, pompous little peer who loses his temper when he doesn't win at tennis.
But searching for i's not dotted, t's uncrossed in his letter, it came to him that all he had written were lies, big lies
: PRESSI ( HERSON )
poured over the paper like a thick syrup.
The above use of the ing-form is not common. Since usually the subject of the ing-form is the same person or thing as the subject of the sentence, it is not easy to identify the subject of the ing-form in sentences of the above kind. Hence, the term dangling or unattached is applied to this ing-form in grammar.
The ing-form denoting a second action in the kind of sentences illustrated above is typical of literary style where its use is quite extensive, but it is hardly ever used in spoken English.
However, the ing-form denoting a second action is quite common in spoken English after certain predicate groups. Here belong
the verbs to spend and to waste when they are followed by the noun time or some other expressions of time, and also after to have a good (hard, jolly, etc.,) time, to have difficulty, to have trouble and some others,
e.g. She did little typing herself, but spent her time correcting the work of the four girls she employed.
Are you going to spend your life saying "ought", like the rest of our moralists?
She told me that she would often spend a whole morning working upon a single page.
Well, I 'm sure I don't know why I waste time cooking a big meal for this family if no one wants to eat it.
He had a good time dancing at the club. They had difficulty finding his address.
In spoken English there is another sentence pattern in which the ing-form denoting a second action is also quite common. The sentence pattern includes the verb to be followed by an indication of place: to be here (there), to be in, to be in the room (kitchen, garden, office, etc.,), to be out, to be upstairs (downstairs) and the like.
e.g. Mother is out shopping.
Pat is downstairs talking to Father. Miss Smith was in her office typing.
(For comparison with the infinitive see § 185.)
The ing-form as Object
§ 214. The ing-form may be used as a direct object of a verb. It is lexically dependent in this function and found after the following verbs: to admit, to avoid, to begin, to cease, to consider, to continue, to delay, to deny, to endure, to enjoy, to escape, to finish, to forget, to give up, to go on, to hate, to intend, to keep, to keep on, to leave off, to like, to love, to mention, to mind (in negative and interrogative sentences), to neglect, to postpone, to pre fer, to propose (= to suggest), to put off, to quit, to recall, to recollect, to regret, to remember, to resent, to resume, to risk, to start, to stop, to suggest, to try and some others.
e .g. English grammar is very difficult and few writers have avoided making mistakes in it.
The rest of us had finished eating, but Cave had cut himself another slice of cheese.
Roger went on speaking with energy, calculation and warmth. He kept on smiling at her and speaking.
He drank his beer and resumed reading his paper.
I was in low spirits and even considered going away. David Rubin did not much like being" called Professor.
In addition to the verbs mentioned in the list above, the ingiorm as object is used after certain modal phrases in the negative form: can't bear, can't face, can't fancy, can't imagine, can't re sist, can't stand and can't help.
e.g. They can't bear being humiliated.
He could not face being talked about.
Later in the day she couldn't resist calling Mrs Spark to find out the details of the tragedy.
He couldn't help asking me: "Isn't there anything else you can do for Roger?"
Besides, the ing-form is also used after the set phrase to feel like.
e.g. He felt like giving up the whole affair.
I didn't feel like talking to him after what had happened.
The subject of the ing-form in this function is the same as that of the predicate verb.
(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 186 and 237.)
§ 215. The ing-form may also serve as a direct object of an adjective. It is lexically dependent in this case and found only after two adjectives — busy and worth.
e.g. The foreman was busy shouting orders and instructions. The children were busy doing all the things they had been
told not to do.
He thought my idea was worth trying. It was not a witticism worth repeating.
(For comparison with the infinitive see §§ 187 and 238.)
§ 216. As a prepositional object of a verb, the ing-form is also lexically dependent. It is found after verbs that take a prepositional object. These verbs may be divided into three groups:
1)verbs followed by one prepositional object,
2)verbs followed by a non-prepositional object and a preposi-
tional object,
3)verbs followed by two prepositional objects.
I. The verbs of the first group are closely connected with a preposition whose meaning is often weakened. The following is the list of the most commonly used verbs: to admit to, to agree to, to aim at, to apologize for, to approve of, to believe in, to bother
about, to care for, to come of, to come round to, to complain of, to confess to, to consist of/in, to count on, to despair of, to dream of, to end in, to forget about, to feel up to, to get to, to get down to, to go back to, to grumble about, to hesitate about, to insist on, to lead to, to long for, to mean by, to persist in, to plan on, to reckon on, to refrain from, to return to, to result in/from, to save from, to succeed in, to take to, to talk of, to tell of, to think of/about, to threaten with, to worry about and some others.
e.g. What did she mean by boasting like that?
I didn't think twice about telling her: we had no secrets.
It does not seem impossible that the biologist will in the future succeed in creating life in his laboratory.
: PRESSI ( HERSON )