Билеты.лексикология

1) theoretical and practical problems of lexicography. Speak about online dictionaries and their types.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics dealing with the study of words and lexicography is the art and science of dictionary making. They are closely connected. They both deal with the same problems,such as form,usage,meaning and origin of the words. They both make use of each others achievements. On the one hand the enormous roll of material Is wildly used by linguists in their research. On the other hand the principals of dictionary

making are alw.based on some linguistic fundamentals and each separate entry(словарн. Статья) is made in accordance with the current knowledge and findings of scholars in various field of linguistic study. We may conclude that lexicography is a practical application of lexicology because no one can study words without the dict. And no one can learn about the dict. Without become involved with words and means.

Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling[kəm'paɪl](составление), writing and editing ['edɪt] (редактирование) dictionaries.

Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly ['skɔləlɪ] (научная) discipline of analysing ['æn(ə)laɪz] and describing the semantic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships within the lexicon ['leksɪkən] (vocabulary) of a language, developing theories of dictionary components [kəm'pəunənt] and structures linking the data ['deɪtə] in dictionaries, the needs for information by users in specific types of situation, and how users may best access ['ækses] (получать доступ)the data incorporated [ɪn'kɔːp(ə)rət] (включенный) in printed and electronic dictionaries.

32. Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Main types of English dictionaries.

Lexicography, the science, of dictionary-compiling, is closely connected with lexicology, both dealing with the same problems — the form, meaning, usage and origin of vocabulary units — and making use of each other’s achievements.

On the one hand, the enormous raw material (необработанный,сырой

материал )collected in dictionaries is widely used by linguists in their research. On the other hand, the principles of dictionary-making are always based on linguistic fundamentals(основы), and each individual entry is made up in accordance with the current knowledge and findings of scholars in the various fields of language study. The compiler’s approach to various lexicological problems (such as homonymy, phraseological units, etc.) always finds reflection in the selection and arrangement of the material.

MAIN TYPES OF ENGLISH DICTIONARIES

§ 1. Encyclopae-dic and Linguistic Dic-tionaries

There are many different types of English dictionaries. First of all they may all be roughly divided into two groups — encyclopaedic and linguis tic.

The two groups of reference books differ essentially in the choice of items included and in the sort of information given about them. Linguistic dictionaries are wоrd-books, their subject’ matter is lexical units and their linguistic properties such as pronunciation, meaning, peculiarities of use, etc.

The encyclopaedic dictionaries, the biggest of which are sometimes called simply encyclopaedias are thing-books, that give information about the extra-linguistic

world, they deal with concepts (objects and phenomena), their relations to other objects and phenomena, etc.

It follows that the encyclopaedic dictionaries will never enter items like father, go, that, be, if, black, but only those of designative character, such as names for substances, diseases, plants and animals, institutions, terms of science, some important events in history and also geographical and biographical entries.

Although some of the items included in encyclopaedic and linguistic dictionaries coincide, such as the names of some diseases, the information presented in them is altogether different. The former give much more extensive information on these subjects. For example, the entry influenza in a linguistic dictionary presents the word’s spelling and pronunciation, grammar characteristics, synonyms, etc. In an encyclopaedia the entry influenza discloses the causes, symptoms['sɪmptəm] , characteristics and varieties of this disease, various treatments of and remedies for it, ways of infection, etc.

For practical purposes it is important to know that American dictionaries are characterised by encyclopaedic inclusion of scientific, technical, geographical and bibliographical items whereas it is common practice with British lexicographers to exclude from their dictionaries information of this kind to devote maximum space to the linguistic properties of words.

Classifica-tion of Linguistic Dictionaries

Thus a linguistic dictionary is a book of words in a language, usually listed alphabetically, with definitions, pronunciations, etymologies [ˌetɪ'mɔləʤɪ ]and other linguistic information or with their equivalents in another language (or other languages).

Linguistic dictionaries may be divided into different categories by different criteria. According to the nature of their word-list we may speak about general diсtiоnaries, on the one hand, and restriсted, on the other. The terms general and restricted do not refer to the size of the dictionary or to the number of items listed. What is meant is that the former contain lexical units in ordinary use with this or that proportion of items from various spheres of life, while the latter make their choice only from a certain part of the word-stock, the restriction being based on any principle determined by the compiler. To restricted dictionaries belong terminological, phraseological, dialectal word-books, dictionaries of new words, of foreign words, of abbreviations, etc.

All types of dictionaries, save the translation ones, may be mоnolingual or bilingual, i.e. the information about the items entered may be given in the same language or in another one.

Care should be taken not to mix up the terms monolingual and explanatory, on the one hand, and bilingual and translation dictionaries on the other. The two pairs of terms reflect different dimensions of dictionaries.

The terms monolingual and bilingual* pertain to the language in which the information about the words dealt with is couched.

The terms explanatory and translation dictionaries characterise the kind of information itself.

Thus among dictionaries of th3 same type, say phraseological or terminological, we may find both monolingual and bilingual word-books. For example, Kluge’s Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache is bilingual, but it is not its purpose to supply translation of the items entered.

It is important to realise that no dictionary, even the most general one, can be a generalpurpose word-book, each one pursues a certain aim, each is designed for a certain set of users. Therefore the selection of material and its presentation, the language in which it is couched depend very much upon the supposed users, i.e. whether the dictionary is planned to serve scholarly users or students or the general public.

Thus to characterise a dictionary one must qualify it at least from the four angles mentioned above: 1) the nature of the word-list, 2) the information supplied, 3) the language of the explanations, 4) the prospective user.

Explanatory Dictionaries

Out of the great abundance of linguistic dictionaries of the English language a large group is made up of the so-called explanatory dictionaries,1 big and small, compiled in Englishspeaking countries. These dictionaries provide information on all aspects of the lexical units entered: graphical, phonetical, grammatical, semantic, stylistic, etymological, etc.

It is common practice to call such word-books English-English dictionaries. But this label cannot be accepted as a term for it only points out that the English words treated are explained in the same language, which is typical not only of this type of dictionaries (cf. synonym-books).

Most of these dictionaries deal with the form, usage and meaning of lexical units in Modern English, regarding it as a stabilised system and taking no account of its past development. They are synchronic in their presentation of words as distinct from diachronic, those concerned with the development of words occurring within the written history of the language.

Translation Dictionaries

Translation dictionaries (sometimes also called parallel) are wordbooks containing vocabulary items in one language and their equivalents in another language.

Specialised Dictionaries

Phraseological dictionaries in England and America have accumulated vast collections of idiomatic or colloquial phrases, proverbs and other, usually image-bearing word-groups with profuse [prə'fjuːs ] (обильный)illustrations.

An Anglo-Russian Phraseological Dictionary by A. V. Koonin published in our country has many advantages over the reference books published abroad and can be considered the first dictionary of English phraseology proper. To ensure the highest possible cognitive value and quick finding of necessary phrases the dictionary enters phrase variants and structural synonyms, distinguishes between polysemantic and homonymic phrases, shows wordand form-building abilities of phraseological units and illustrates their use by quotations.

New Words dictionaries have it as their aim adequate reflection of the continuous growth of the English language.

Dictionaries of slang contain elements from areas of substandard speech such as vulgarisms, jargonisms, taboo words, curse-words, colloquialisms, etc.

Usage dictionaries deals with usage problems of all kinds, on what is right or wrong. Designed for native speakers they supply much various information on such usage problems as,

e.g., the difference in meaning between words like comedy, farce 1) театр. фарс

(комедия или водевиль лёгкого, игривого содержания)

2) фарс, насмешка, грубая шутка, шутовская выходка)and burlesque[bɜː'lesk]1) лит.

бурлеск2) пародия; карикатура) formality and formalism, the proper pronunciation of words like yolk[jəuk] желток (яйца), nonchalant['nɔnʃ(ə)lənt](бесстрастный), the plural forms of the nouns flamingo(мн. flamingos, flamingoes; зоол.), radix['reɪdɪks] (мн. radixes, radices ['reɪdɪˌsiːz], commander-in-chief(pl commanders in chief), the meaning of some foreign words and of such archaic words as yon,yonder ['jɔndə] (1. прил.; уст.; диал. вон тот) They also explain what is meant by neologisms, archaisms [ɑː'keɪɪz(ə)m], colloquial and slang words and how one is to handle them, etc.

Dictionaries of word-frequency inform the user as to the frequency of occurrence [ə'kʌr(ə)n(t)s] (частота; распространённость)of lexical units in speech.

A Reverse dictionary is a list of words in which the entry words are arranged in alphabetical order starting with their final letters.

The original aim of such dictionaries was to indicate words which form rhymes (in those days the composition of verse was popular as a very delicate pastime).

Pronouncing dictionaries record contemporary pronunciation. As compared with the phonetic characteristics of words given by other dictionaries the information provided by pronouncing dictionaries is much more detailed: they indicate variant pronunciations (which are numerous in some cases), as well as the pronunciation of different grammatical forms.

Etymological dictionaries trace present-day words to the oldest forms available, establish their primary meanings and give the parent form reconstructed by means of the comparative-historical method. In case of borrowings they point out the immediate source of borrowing, its origin, and parallel forms in cognate languages.

Ideographic dictionaries designed for English-speaking writers, orators or translators seeking to express their ideas adequately contain words grouped by the concepts expressed.

2) The peculiarities of communication: informal vocabulary

Informal vocabulary is used in one's immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. One uses informal words when at home or when feeling at home

Informal style is relaxed, free-and-easy,familiar and unpretentious. But it should be pointed out that the informal talk of well-educated people considerably differs from that of the illiterate or semi-educated; the choice of words with adults is different from the vocabulary of teenagers;people living in provinces use certain regional words and expressions. Consequently, the choice of words is determined also by the speaker's educational and cultural background,age group,and his occupational and regional characteristics.

Informal words and word-groups are traditionally divided into three types: colloquial, slang and dialect words and word-groups.

Colloquial Words

Colloquialisms are used by everybody , and the sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of literary colloquial words. These are informal words that are used in everyday conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups. The sphere of communication of literary colloquial words also includes the printed page.

Pal and chum are colloquial equivalents of a friend Bite and snack stand for meal

Hi,hello are informal greetings

Start,go on,finish and be through are also literary colloquialisms

To have a crush on smb means to be in love. Pram , perambulator [pə'ræmbjəleɪtə]

(детская коляска, коляска для новорождённого) Exam,fridge,flu – influenza [ˌɪnflu'enzə]

Movie

Phrasal verbs : put up, make up,turn up

The borderline between literary colloquial and familiar colloquial is not always clearly marked. The familiar colloquial words are mostly used by the young and the semieducated.

Doc– doctor

Hi– how do you do?

E. g. doc (for doctor), hi (for how do you do), ta-ta (for good-bye), goings-on (for behaviour, usually with a negative connotation), to kid smb. (for tease, banter), to pick up smb. (for make a quick and easy acquaintance), go on with you (for let me alone), shut up (for keep silent), beat it (for go away).

Low colloquial is defined by G. P. Krapp as uses "characteristic of the speech of persons who may be broadly described as uncultivated".

As soon as the first words marked "colloquial" appear in the students' functional vocabulary, it should be explained to them that the marker "colloquial" (as, indeed, any other stylistic marker) is not a recommendation for unlimited usage but, on the contrary, a sign of restricted usage.

Slang

There are many definitions of slang but neither of them are exact.

One of the definitions which is given by Oxford Dictionary: slang is language of a highly colloquial style, considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense." A lot of slang words are based on metaphor ['metəfə].

A back-seat driver – a person who sits at the back seat and gives instructions A curtain-climber – a naughty little child

A vegetable – a silly person

To go bananas – to become crazy

Out of one's tree – mad Hit the sack – to go to bed

A chicken – a coward['kauəd] A dial – a person's face

An idiot-box ['ɪdɪət] – a TV set

When slang words denote new and important notions they are quickly accepted into the Basic vocabulary.

Student's slang

To stew,to mug, to cram - to study hard

Breeze,fly-by,gravy - easy college courses

Killer,pain in the ass - difficult courses

A dialect – a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase.

Great Britain is a small country ,but there are lots of dialects in it. Scientists distinguish 5 main groups of regional dialects: Northern, Midland, Western, Eastern and Southern dialects. Also there are Scottish and Irish dialects.

Dialectal peculiarities, especially those of vocabulary, are constantly being incorporated into everyday colloquial speech or slang. From these levels they can be transferred into the common stock, i. e. words which are not stylistically marked and a few of them even into formal speech and into the literary language. Car, trolley, tram began as dialect words

The lexicon of dialects is remarkable for its conservatism. Many words which are obsolete In Standard English can be found in dialects: aye -yes, ney -no, loch -lake, mich – much, lass – girl, bonny – handsome.

3) Social and regional dialects

A dialect – a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase.

Great Britain is a small country ,but there are lots of dialects in it. Scientists distinguish 5 main groups of regional dialects: Northern, Midland, Western, Eastern and Southern dialects. Also there are Scottish and Irish dialects.

Dialectal peculiarities, especially those of vocabulary, are constantly being incorporated into everyday colloquial speech or slang. From these levels they can be transferred into the common stock, i. e. words which are not stylistically marked and a few of them even into formal speech and into the literary language. Car, trolley, tram began as dialect words

The lexicon of dialects is remarkable for its conservatism. Many words which are obsolete In Standard English can be found in dialects: aye -yes, ney -no, loch -lake, mich – much, lass – girl, bonny – handsome.

Cockney dialect

The term Cockney has geographical, social and linguistic associations. Traditionally, it refers to people born within a certain area of London, that is covered by "the sound of Bow bells". Geographically and culturally, it is often used to refer to working-class Londoners, particularly those in the East End. Linguistically, it can refer to the accent and form of English spoken by this group.

Typical features

Grammatical features:

Use of me instead of my, for example, "At's me book you got 'ere". Cannot be used when "my" is emphasised (i.e., "At's my book you got 'ere" (and not "his")).

Use of ain't

Use of double negatives, for example "I ditn't see nuffink."

Frequent use of the phrase to "get the hump" or "have the hump" (pronounced "'ave the 'ump", a primarily [praɪ'mer(ə)lɪ] Cockney phrase that refers to being grumpy(несдержанный, раздражительный,сердитый)with someone else on account of feeling wronged(причинить зло) by the other person.

Th-fronting:

/θ/ can become [f] in any environment. [fɪn] "thin", [mɛfs] "maths". /ð/ can become [v] in any environment [dæɪ] "they", [ˈbɒvə] "bother".

T-glottalization: use of the glottal stop as an allophone of /t/ in various positions

4) how can a new object or notion get a name in the language? Use different examples of neologisms to prove your idea.

A neologism is a word or a set of expression formed according to the productive models or borrowed from another language and felt by the speaker as something new.

New words and phrases can be created to describe new scientific discoveries. A lot of neologisms appear in the sphere of ecology:

Global warming, greenhouse effect, ozone-friendly

The vocabulary reflects social changes in the society , new words : yuppie, guppie, dinkie,woopie

Yuppie is a young person who lives in a city, earns a lot of money and spends it buying expensive possessions and doing fashionable things.

Dinkie is an abbreviation of the words double income,no kids, Wopies -well-off older persons.

There are a lot of new words in the sphere of mass media:soap opera,chat– line,hotline

(телефонная "горячая линия"),theme park (тематический парк; парк отдыха с аттракционами, оборудованием, посвящённый одной теме (часто детский),(an area planned as a leisure attraction, in which all the displays, buildings, activities, etc., are based on or relate to one particular subject); karaoke[ˌkærɪ'əukɪ](Japanese loan).

In the sphere of politics we can mention such neologisms as : a fragile state (a low incom country,characterized by weak state capacity and weak state legitimacy [ lɪ'ʤɪtəməsɪ]. The opposite of a fragile state ['fræʤaɪl] state is a stable state( able to withstand(устоять (перед чем-л.), выдержать (что-л.); противостоять ) internal and external shocks)

Neologisms can be classified according to the ways the are formed.

b)phonological - artificial combination of sounds ,sometimes combined with Greek morphemes: acryl [ˈæk rəˌl], perlon( a type of a shark), J.R.Tolkien coined the term hobbit

c) Borrowings - Jihad [ʤɪ'hɑːd](Arabic) - a group of Muslin ['mʌzlɪn] Extremists [ɪk'striːmɪst]

d)Semantic neologisms: anorak – a boring person who is interested in a particular subject,the word umbrella developed the meanings of aircraft cover and political cover.

e)Morphological neologisms formed as a result of word-building:

Big-eyed – one who eats when he/she is not hungry(greedy)

Crunk – a type of hip-hop or rap music

So neologisms can develop in English in three main ways:

6)a new lexeme['leksiːm] is introduced to denote a new object or phenomenon; it is called neologisms proper

7)A lexeme existing in the language can change its meaning to denote a new phenomenon; these neologisms are called semantic

8)A new lexeme can develop in the language to denote an object or phenomenon which has already some lexical unit in the language denote it, in such cases we speak about transnomination which is often used to form euphemisms. The word slum (трущобы)for example was substituted by the word ghetto,then by the word-group inner town.

Some more examples of neologisms in the UK :

Argy-bargy(noun)– noisy arguments Barney (noun) – a loud argument

Blether( verb) – to talk continuously about the things that are not important Braw(adj.) – very good, pleasant, attractive

(Супплетивизм — образование словоизменительной формы некоторого слова уникальным для языка образом (часто — от другого корня и/или при помощи уникального чередования). Такая форма называется супплетивной формой или супплетивом.

Например, в русском языке прошедшее время глагола образуется при помощи суффикса -л, добавляемого к основе инфинитива:

делать — делал, сделать — сделал, думать — думал, знать — знал, прясть — прял, идти — шёл.

Впоследней паре слово «шёл» является супплетивной формой, так как образовано от другого корня; чередование «ид — ш» в русском языке уникально и выступает только при образовании этой формы. Форма прял от прясти не является супплетивной (ср. вести — вёл, мести — мёл и т. п.)

Вязыках мира супплетивными обычно оказываются парадигмы немногих самых распространённых слов; глагола 'быть' (ср. рус. быть — есть, англ. be — am — is — are), 'идти' (ср. фр. je vais — j'allais — j'irai), существительных (ср. рус. человек — люди, англ. person — people), местоимений (ср. рус. он — его, англ. I — me — mine, нем. ich — meiner), наречий (ср. рус. хорошо — лучше, исп. bien — mejor, англ. good — better).

Fatherpaternal, home - domestic, sun - solar, mind - mental, tooth - dental.

In all the examples stylistically neutral word which is, as a rule ,of native origin is correlated with a borrowed adjective of a different root.

Learned words have some characteristic features in common : they are plysyllabic words, borrowed from Latin, Greek, French : to corroborate[kə'rɔb(ə)reɪt] гл.подтверждать;

подкреплять, поддерживать (теорию,положение),banal[bə'nɑːl] банальный, избитый, неоригинальный

,pedantic[pɪ'dæntɪk],laconic[lə'kɔnɪk],misanthrope ['mɪs(ə)nθrəup]

мизантроп, человеконенавистник.

There remained words that have been traditionally associated with poetry. Billowwave, brine -salt water , woe [wəu]-sorrow.

Terminology

A term is a word or a word-group used to name a notion characteristic of some special field of knowledge, industry,culture.

Terminology is the sum of terms for a special branch of science, technology, industry.

Many of the terms that in the first period of the existence are known to several specialist ,later become used by a wide circle of people. Here some examples: a computer,keyboard,video-recorder,printer,microwave, gene[ʤiːn], penicillin[ˌpenɪ'sɪlɪn],beam weapon(лучевое оружие) .

Antrushina.

Professional Terminology

Hundreds of thousands of words belong to special scientific, professional or trade terminological systems and are not used or even understood by people outside the particular speciality. Every field of modern activity has its specialised vocabulary. There is a special medical vocabulary, and similarly special terminologies for psychology[saɪ'kɔləʤɪ], botany['bɔtənɪ], music, linguistics, teaching methods and many others.