Задание №109 по англ.яз. Глебовский 07

Упражнение 4. Какие из указанных переводов слов являются ошибочными. Укажите правильный перевод.

Грамматические упражнения

Упражнение 1. Переведите следующие предложения, определите функцию инфинитива.

1.The Romans sometimes used iron rods to strengthen their buildings.

2.To produce compressive prestress a concrete member can be placed between two abut­ments, with jacks between its ends and the abutments, and pressure is applied with the jacks.

3.In contrast with cast-in-place concrete construction, precast concrete requires field connections to tie the structure together.

4.To reduce weight, the slab may be formed with internal cavities.

5.In ground of worse bearing quality the separate footings under the walls of a building can be combined to form a single thicker and deeper raft foundation.

6.With a concrete wall additional width is used to support the wall forms while the concrete is poured.

7.Builders mix cement with sand, aggregate and water to make concrete.

8.People build every building project to get a structure which will function for some time.

9.The builder has to understand building materials to produce the satisfactory structure.

10.Sometimes concrete is prestressed mostly in order to prevent cracking.

Упражнение 2. Переведите следующие предложения, определите степень

сравнения прилагательных.

1.The basis of modern production of elements in concrete is hydraulic cement powder,

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one of the most versatile binders known.

2.An increase in the value of this ratio would produce a concrete with more voids giving lower compressive strength.

3.The fire resistance can be made a little lower by aggregates containing silica.

4.The safest technique used appeared to be the best.

5.In this respect it is usually better than unreinforced masonry.

6.Failure takes place when an object can no longer serve its purpose.

7.Failure unit stress may be smaller than that determined experimentally.

8.The qualities of most fabrics will not become worse in the range of temperatures from at least - 40°C to + 60°C.

Упражнение 3. Переведите следующие предложения, обратите внимание на причастия и причастные обороты.

1.The forces acting upon the framework are transmitted to the foundations.

2.A floor in a framed building consists of a number of floor bays.

3.The space required for services is significant in the selection of the arrangement of beams.

4.To make toughened glass its surface, being at a high temperature, is rapidly cooled.

5.At high temperature GRP even moderate stressed can fail with time.

6.The slab, supported at its four corners, transmits the loads to the columns.

Упражнение 4. Задайте пять общих и пять альтернативных вопросов к тексту

А.

Текст B

TYPES OF FLOOR WITH STEEL BEAMS

The shorter the route taken by a load to its foundations and the fewer the elements involved in the process, the greater the economy of the structure. Nevertheless, the space required for services is significant in the selection of the arrangement of the main and secondary beams, their interrelationship and their depth.

Floor without steel beams The flat concrete slab, supported at its four corners, transmits the loads directly to the columns. With long spans the slab is very heavy. Therefore, this form of construction can be used only in combination with closely spaced columns.

Floors with one-way beam systems The floor beams are supported directly by the columns. The force transmission routes being short, this is an economical solution. The planning grid consists of elongated rectangles with columns widely spaced in one direction, closely spaced in the other.

Floors with beams in two directions If the columns are widely spaced in both grid directions, the loads from the secondary beams are transmitted to main beams which, in turn, transmit them to the columns. The forces thus have to pass farther than in the

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Урок 2.7

Фонетическое задание

Прочитайте транскрипцию в списке A, соотнесите её с соответствующим словом из списка B и переведите слово на русский язык. Учтите, что не все слова списка В даны в списке А.

A

[q'GeIsqnt]; ['sentq]; [graVt]; ['sJkwqns]; [Im'bed]; ['dxmIG]; ["Intq'fIq];

[q'pIq]; [prq'sJGq]; [I'fISqnt]; [prI'saIslI]; [q'kAmplIS]; [tek'nJk]; ['daVql]

Текст A

SETTING THE FLOOR SLABS

With any construction technique, problems often appear and procedures have to be developed which can overcome these in a practical and efficient way. This has been the same in the case of high-rise buildings. Often, different methods are adaptable to the same situation.

Several techniques have been developed for placing the reinforcement as well as grouting. One sequence involves laying walls to storey height and placing the slabs on the ungrouted masonry. Then the vertical reinforcement is placed into the block cells, ensuring that it projects above the finished floor slab to serve as dowels for the next storey walls. This is a very efficient method, but the unreinforced wall possesses relatively little stability and can be easily damaged when the floor slabs are being placed on it. A safer method involves building the masonry walls to full height with the reinforcement located in the walls as the masonry units (brick or block) are laid up. Grouting is then accomplished in full-storey height lifts. The dowels projecting above the slab must be precisely centred in the wall so that when the slabs are lowered into position, the projecting dowels do not interfere with them.

In another procedure, the grouting is stopped a short distance below the floor line, dowels are placed in the grout space, and this space is solid grouted after the slabs have been positioned. Thus, the slabs can be placed without dowels positioned earlier

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interfering. This method also possesses the advantage that it is easier to place the bond beam steel at the top of the wall. The steel extending along the wall at the floor slab level serves to tie all the slabs together. Another method of tying the slabs together lies through the use of weld plates embedded in the slabs so that the weld plates can be used as splices to adjacent panels, tying them together directly.

Notes:

bond beam steel крепёжная арматура железобетонной балки cell n.1 секция, камера

grout n. жидкий строительный раствор grouting n. заливка строительного раствора interfere v. мешать, сталкиваться

ungrouted masonry колодцевая кладка без заполнения пустот строительным раствором weld plate сварная пластина

Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.

1.What is typical with any constructional technique?

2.What is the first construction technique described?

3.What is its drawback?

4.Is there a safer method?

5.What is it?

6.What is the second method described?

7.What is the advantage of this method?

8.What other method of tying the slabs together is there?

Лексические упражнения

Упражнение 1. Переведите на русский язык приведённые ниже слова. Какие из перечисленных слов могут быть другими частями речи? Какими именно? Как они в этом случае переводятся на русский язык?

lift (n.), grout (v.), centre (v.), sequence (n.), adjacent (adj.), position (v.), embed (v.), splice (n.).

Упражнение 2. Переведите следующие слова на английский язык:

класть, устанавливать, в качестве, другой, разрушать, элемент каменной кладки, полезный, эффективный, относительно, устойчивость, размещать, преодолевать, сваривать, скреплять, тянуться, так же как и, опускать, надёжный, высотой в этаж.

Упражнение 3. Найдите в тексте термины, связанные с установкой перекры- тий. Перечислите их и дайте перевод на русский язык.

Упражнение 4. Какие из указанных переводов слов являются ошибочными. Укажите правильный перевод.

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Упражнение 5. Заполните пропуски в тексте, используя слова из приведённого ниже списка:

loads space types used ways

Building materials are used in two basic (1)… . In the first way they are used to support the (2)… on a building and in the second way they are used to divide the (3)… in a building. Building components are made from building materials and the form of a component is related to the way in which it is (4)… . We can see how this works by considering three different (5)… of construction.

(продолжение текста в упражнении 5 урока 2.8 стр. 48)

Грамматические упражнения

Упражнение 1. Переведите следующие предложения, определите функции герундия.

1.A property particularly with concrete is shrinkage caused by loss of water after hardening.

2.Summer is good for building.

3.Because of the low tensile strength of concrete, shrinkage when restrained leads to cracking.

4.The wet concrete can be transported to its final position on site by pumping.

5.More fluid concrete mixes are required for pumping.

6.No wet concrete, after being placed in its final position, should be at a temperature less than 5°C or 40°F.

7.The concrete must be prevented from drying out too fast because this may cause cracking.

8.A concrete structure may be constructed by casting the concrete in place on the site, by building it of elements cast in some other place or by a combination of the two.

9.With some types of precast concrete construction no time is lost in waiting for concrete to gain strength at one level of a structure before the next level can be placed.

10.Special admixtures make hardening faster.

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Упражнение 2. Переведите следующие предложения, определите время и залог глаголов.

1.Several techniques have been developed for placing the reinforcement as well as grouting.

2.Grouting is accomplished in full-storey height lifts.

3.The unreinforced wall possesses relatively little stability and therefore can be easily knocked over when the floor slabs are being placed on it.

4.The grouting is stopped a short distance below the floor line, dowels are placed in the grout space, and this space is solid grouted after the slabs have been positioned.

5.This procedure will provide for a continuous uniform bearing.

6.Other schemes involved the use of steel.

7.Such slabs do not require a topping.

8.A topping slab will be poured on top of the filler block to form the finished wearing surface of the tee shape and the floor diaphragm.

Упражнение 3. Переведите следующие предложения, определите функцию инфинитива.

1.To construct a grillage for equal load transmission in both directions involves considerable effort.

2.The structural steel floor comprises the floor slab and the beams to support it.

3.To achieve this, the supporting beams must be quite closely spaced.

4.Low temperatures decrease stretch of the fabric but make it easier for tears to develop.

5.Insulation, which is material with a very low U, is used to make the rate of heat flow as low as possible.

6.Steels which have higher carbon contents are more brittle at low temperatures and more difficult to weld.

7.To reduce the weight of the slab is the task of an engineer.

8.The type of concrete mix and the properties of the hardened concrete may be altered. To do that the proportions of the ingredients may be varied, the type of cement and aggregates may be altered and admixtures may be used.

Упражнение 4. Задайте пять разделительных и пять альтернативных вопросов к тексту А.

Текст B

TYPES OF FLOOR SYSTEMS

Floor systems not only support the vertical loads but they also serve as the horizontal diaphragms which distribute the lateral forces to the shear walls. There are several different types of floor systems:

Cast-in-place slabs

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The simple cast-in-place slab floor system is sometimes used where there are irregular floor designs that would make it difficult to form similar precast units. It provides a good structural tie without requiring any specific type of a joint.

Prestressed elements

Precast prestressed tees are a different type of system. They provide economical long spans giving open space below that can be easily divided with partitions. A topping slab provides both a finished floor surface and a tie, so that the system functions as a diaphragm. This cast-in-place topping slab must be thick enough so that the reinforcement within it can achieve adequate bond to the concrete.

Steel bar joists

The system uses steel bar joists which support a concrete floor slab or a metal deck with a concrete topping surface. It is useful where some space between the ceiling and floor deck above for different kinds of services is required.

Lift-on slab

A lift-on slab, usually of full room size, has proven to be economical and efficient. Such slabs do not require a topping or finish since the floor surface and ceiling finish are part of the slab.

Notes:

lift-on precast slab сборное железобетонное перекрытие, монтируемое методом “lift slab”

steel bar joist решётчатая вспомогательная стальная балка

Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.

1.Which functions do floor systems perform?

2.When is cast-in-place slab floor system used?

3.When are precast prestressed tees used?

4.Why must cast-in-place topping slab be thick?

5.What is the reason for the use of steel bar joists?

6.What are the advantages of a lift-on slab?

Грамматическое упражнение

Упражнение 1. Найдите в тексте неличные формы глагола, определите, какими частями речи они являются, какую функцию выполняют в предложении, и переведите их на русский язык.

Лексические упражнения

Упражнение 1. Переведите на русский язык приведённые ниже слова. Если Вы не знаете слово, найдите его в словаре. Выпишите из словаря то значение слова, в котором оно использовано в тексте.

irregular (adj. ), tee (n.), floor deck, diaphragm (n. ), topping (n. ), deck (n. ), shear wall, finish (n. ).

Упражнение 2. Найдите перевод слов списка А в списке В.

Упражнение 3. Напишите предложения с каждым из перечисленных ниже

слов:

stable adj. - stability n. finish n. - finish v.

Урок 2.8

Фонетическое задание

Прочитайте транскрипцию в списке A, соотнесите её с соответствующим словом из списка B и переведите слово на русский язык. Учтите, что не все слова списка В даны в списке А.

A

[kqm'pxkt]; ['tPlqrqns]; [skrJd]; [rI'kwaIqmqnt]; ['wLtqtaIt]; [In'hIqrqnt];

[mqVld]; [pq'mIsIbql]; [trPf]; ['kAvqrIN]; ['speIsIN]; [prI'lImInqrI]; [qb'teIn];

Текст A

FLOOR REQUIREMENTS

The floor must be designed considering all the functions it will be required to perform. The following factors are important in determining the span to be adopted for the floor slab:

• The span of the slab should fit in with the dimensions of the planning grid for the building.

•The thickness of the concrete slab depends not only on structural factors, but also on such requirements as sound insulation and fire protection.

•The spacing of the floor beams is determined by the maximum permissible width necessary for transportation of the precast concrete units, the main joints of which are parallel to these floor beams.

Lightweight concrete used either as a filler material or as a structural material, reduces the weight of the floor. However, it may involve some loss of sound insulation and fire protection. Furthermore, with long spans and heavy loads, the weight advantage of lightweight concrete may be reduced because deeper sections are necessary.

The degree of evenness of the surface of the structural floor depends on the method of construction. The dimensional tolerances in­herent in the construction of an in-situ concrete floor require the application of a screed as a preliminary finishing layer over the slab. Smaller tolerances are obtained when in-situ concrete is placed on permanent

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formwork, such as precast concrete units or steel troughs. A floor composed of precast concrete units generally requires only a very thin screed. If these units are precast in standardised steel moulds, a surface of such evenness can be obtained that the floor covering may be laid directly upon the structural floor.

Normally, a steel floor cannot be considered as watertight. To make it watertight an in-situ concrete floor should be laid in one continuous operation, without construction joints, and the concrete itself should be of good quality and well compacted.

Notes:

evenness n. ровность (поверхности) preliminary adj. предварительный

Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.

1.What are the factors important in determining the span for the floor slab?

2.What are the advantages and disadvantages of the use of lightweight concrete for floor slabs?

3.What does the degree of evenness of the structural floor depend on?

4.Why is the application of a screed required?

5.How are smaller tolerances obtained?

6.What should be done to achieve very high evenness of the structural floor?

7.How can watertightness of the structural floor be obtained?

Лексические упражнения

Упражнение 1. Переведите на русский язык приведённые ниже слова. Какие из перечисленных слов могут быть другими частями речи? Какими именно? Как они в этом случае переводятся на русский язык?

screed (n. ), tolerance (n. ), watertight (adj. ), covering (n. ), dimensional tolerance, permissible (adj. ), in­herent (adj. ), compact (v. ), trough (n. ), construction joint, structural floor, mould (n. ), finishing (n. ), spacing (n. ), requirement (n. ).

Упражнение 2. Переведите следующие слова на английский язык:

соответствовать, операция, сокращать, легкий бетон, нагрузка, более того, огнезащита, как, балка перекрытия, уплотнять, водонепроницаемый, ширина, постоянная опалубка, получать, главный, сборный бетон.

Упражнение 3. Найдите в тексте термины, связанные с проектированием и возведением перекрытий. Перечислите их и дайте перевод на русский язык.

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Упражнение 4. Какие из указанных переводов слов являются ошибочными. Укажите правильный перевод.

Упражнение 5. Заполните пропуски в тексте, используя слова из приведённого ниже списка:

(Продолжение. Начало в упражнении 5 урока 2.7, стр.42 )

1.In one kind of construction, blocks of materials such as brick, stone, or (1)… are joined together to form (2)… walls. These materials are heavy, however they have high (3)… strength. Walls made up of blocks support the building and divide the space in the (4)… .

2.In another type of construction, sheet materials (листовой материал) are used to

(5)… walls which act as both space-dividers and structural support. Timber, concrete and some (6)… can be made into large rigid sheets and (7)… to form a building.

3.Rod materials (8)… used for structural sup­port but not for dividing spaces. Timber, steel and concrete can be formed into rods and used (9)… columns. Rod materials with high tensile and compressive (10)… can be fixed together to form framed structures.

Грамматические упражнения

Упражнение 1. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на герундий в функции подлежащего.

1.The spacing of the floor beams is determined by the maximum permissible transportable width of the precast concrete units.

2.Welding or bolting of steel components produces high strength connections.

3.Altering the internal layout involves dismantling and re-erecting the partitions.

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4.Applying long term loads may cause sagging of timber beams due to creep.

5.Stiffening with the help of lattice bracing or solid diaphragm walls results in fixed points in the building.

6.The spacing of the supports determines the spans of the floor structure and therefore its construction depth.

7.Mixing aggregates, cement and water followed by curing produces the hardened concrete.

8.Although bulk costs of metal are higher than those of most other materials building of steel is still reasonable.

Образуйте от них глаголы с помощью приставки re- , означающей повторное действие. Переведите полученные производные слова.

Упражнение 3. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите, от каких слов и с помощью каких суффиксов образованы подчеркнутые существительные.

1.The thickness of the concrete slab depends on such requirements as sound insulation and fire protection.

2.The dimensional tolerances inherent in the construction of an in-situ concrete floor require the application of a screed as a preliminary finishing layer over the slab.

3.The most popular thermosetting plastic in use in the construction industry, due to its cost, strength, relative hardness and toughness, is fibreglass reinforced polyester.

4.It can be easily adapted to changing requirements.

5.Folding screens can be moved by the users of the building themselves.

6.Steel loses strength and stiffness at high temperatures.

Упражнение 4. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите функции неличных форм глагола.

1.Admixtures are available to retard the setting of the wet concrete and this can be used in hot weather to prevent a premature set.

2.The material may fail by breaking or by excessive deformation.

3.A structural member made this way is called a glu-lam member.

4.A building used by people must be kept warmer than the surrounding air in cold climates and cooler than the surrounding air in hot climates.

5.Since the structures designed by civil engineers are intended to be stationary or stable, these forces must be kept in balance.

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6.Longitudinal reinforcing has been selected on the basis of providing minimal shrinkage.

7.To reduce weight the slab may be formed with internal cavities or composed of ribs joined together by a thin top layer of concrete, the latter being described as a waffle slab.

8.All buildings have to be stiffened to resist wind loading.

9.The load transmission conditions being approximately the same in both directions, a planning grid is adopted this being typical of in-situ-concrete construction.

10.The joints may be sealed by binding the precast concrete floor units together with a special adhesive mortar.

Упражнение 5. Задайте три вопроса к подлежащему, три – к определению подлежащего и три разделительных вопроса к тексту А.

Текст B

FLOOR REQUIREMENTS (continued)

Sound insulation In modern high-rise buildings, where many people have to live or work most of their time acoustic insulation is a very important factor. The floor must provide the necessary insulation against airborne noise and footstep sound. Speaking about this acoustic function, the floor comprises one or more layers:

The single-layer floor comprises only the structural floor.

The two-layer floor comprises the structural floor and a surfacing separated from it by a resilient insulating material classified as floating floor. A two-layer floor may consist of the structural floor with a suspended ceiling fitted below.

The three layer floor is a combination of the two latter forms of construction that is a floating floor with a suspended ceiling.

Fire protection The fire resistance of a floor required can be achieved in various

ways:

•for the floor slab itself: choice of a fire-resistant form of construction or a protective coating or finish;

•for the steel beams: sprayed protection or cladding;

•as an alternative, the floor structure as a whole may be encased.

Heat insulation If a floor separates a heated storey from one that is not heated, it should comprise a heat-insulating layer, which is not needed if the storeys above and below the floor are both heated. Terraces should be heat-insulated on the same principles as for flat roofs.

Notes:

heat v. нагревать as a whole в целом

Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.

1.What must acoustic insulation be provided against?

2.What is the structural difference between a single-layer and a two-layer floor?

3.What does the term “three layer floor” mean?

4.How can the fire resistance of a floor be achieved?

5.When should a floor comprise a heat-insulating layer?

Грамматическое упражнение

Упражнение 1. Найдите в тексте неличные формы глагола, определите, какими частями речи они являются, какую функцию выполняют в предложении, и переведите их на русский язык.

Лексические упражнения

Упражнение 1. Переведите на русский язык приведённые ниже слова. Если Вы не знаете слово, найдите его в словаре. Выпишите из словаря то значение слова, в котором оно использовано в тексте.

protection (n.), encase (v.), resilient (adj.), protective (adj.), heat-insulating (adj.), suspended ceiling, terrace (n.).

Упражнение 2. Найдите перевод слов списка А в списке В.

Упражнение 3. Напишите предложения с каждым из перечисленных ниже

слов:

require – requirement permit - permissible practice - practical

Текст C

FLEXIBILITY OF LAYOUT

The more extensive use of steel in multi-storey buildings results from the need for convertibility of buildings. It often occurs that the internal layout and facilities originally provided in a building soon prove to be not adequate or at least not completely adequate. A building can obtain a longer useful life if it is flexible in the sense that it can be easily adapted to changing requirements.

Depending on the extent of the conversions involved, the following degrees of flexibility may be distinguished:

First degree of flexibility

The modification of the floor space is altered by changing the arrangement of space-separating elements, for example, folding screens which can be moved by the owners of the building themselves.

Second degree of flexibility

In this case, altering the internal layout in­volves dismantling and re-erecting the parti­tions. This is possible only if the latter are non-loadbearing. This requirement can only be fulfilled by framed buildings in which the load-bearing and space-enclosing functions are separate and are performed by different sets of components. The columns of a framed building may, however, be a problem to internal changes. Wide col­umn spacings and long floor spans improve the flexibility of layout. Flexibility in altering and rearranging the services is also essential. In a building provided with movable partitions, these must be installed in the floors. Hence it is desirable to provide a floor in which the services can be installed according to the design and when the need occurs modified, as re­quired.

It is necessary to distinguish between the following different types of partition:

∙movable prefabricated units;

∙demountable walls whose materials can be re-used­;

∙demountable walls whose materials cannot be re-used.

Third degree of flexibility

Modification of the load-bearing structure be­comes necessary, for example, in the following circumstances:

∙strengthening the structure to carry heavier loads;

∙increasing the spans by the removal of internal supports;

∙increasing the height with additional storeys;

∙extending a building;

∙demolishing certain parts of a building.

These modifications can be fulfilled easily, without excessive damage to the existing building if it is steel-framed and not be expensive.

Fourth degree of flexibility

This comprises structures which - except for the foundations - can be completely dismantled and whose components can be re-used for other purposes and in combination

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with other struc­tures. For this, the space-enclosing elements, as well as the actual structural frame, must be composed of demountable standardised components. Only a number of parts of such a building are dismantled, for example, the roof covering, floor finishes, services, etc. The foundations or basements are either back­filled or used for other structures. Construc­tional systems which comply with these require­ments are available for external and internal walls and for ceilings.

Fifth degree of flexibility

The last way of adaptation of an existing building to meet changing circumstances is by demolition to give place for a new building when structural modification is not economically pos­sible.

When considering the type of structural system to adopt for a projected new building, ease of demolition should be included in the cost analysis. Steel-framed buildings can be demolished quickly, at moder­ate cost.

Notes:

backfill v. обратно засыпать comply with соответствовать

convertibility n. конверсионность, возможность изменения demolition n. снос (здания)

folding screen раздвижная стенка last adj. последний

life n. зд. срок службы originally adv. первоначально

rearrange v. перегруппировать, расположить по-новому soon adv. скоро

Ответьте на вопросы к тексту.

1.What does the more extensive use of steel in multi-storey buildings result from?

2.How can a longer useful life of a building be obtained?

3.How many degrees of flexibility are there?

4.What do they depend on?

5.How can the modification of the floor space be altered with the first degree of flexibility?

6.What is its difference from the second degree of flexibility?

7.Why must parti­tions be non-loadbearing in case of the second degree of flexibility?

8.What does the third degree of flexibility involve?

9.Which elements of a structure can be re-used for other purposes and in combination with other struc­tures with the fourth degree of flexibility?

10.What does the fifth degree of flexibility mean?

Лексическое упражнение

В списке А даны некоторые слова и выражения, которые использованы в тексте для домашнего чтения. Найдите их перевод в списке В.

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Урок 2.9

Фонетическое задание

Прочитайте транскрипцию в списке A, соотнесите её с соответствующим словом из списка B и переведите слово на русский язык. Учтите, что не все слова списка В даны в списке А.

A

[In'klqVZq]; [flaIt]; ["Intq'mJdIqt]; ['spaIqrql]; ['steqkeIs]; ["sWkjV'leISqn];

[kqn'vJnIqns]; ['frJkwqnt]; ['eskqleItq]; [GI'PmItrI]; [dI'stINkSqn]; [I'speSqlI];

Текст A

STAIRCASES

Stairs are used for vertical circulation in buildings. A distinction must be made between fixed stairs and escalators. Ramps and, as well as lifts, may perform similar functions.

Depending on the space available, or the architectural requirements, stairs may be straight, curved or spiral on plan. The most frequent type, especially in buildings designed for construc­tion by mass production techniques, is the staircase with straight flights.

In the design of stairs the following problems should be paid particular attention to: the geometry of the staircase; the construction of its components; the vertical enclosure of the staircase in relation to the storeys and to the rest of the building generally.

The fixed straight staircase comprises flights and landings. A series of more than three steps is a flight. For reasons of safety the length of a flight should be limited to about 18 steps. It is rarely that two floors in a multi-storey building are connected by a single flight of stairs. If two or more flights are installed in each storey, one or more intermediate landings, as well as top and bottom landings, will be needed. If the successive flights are at right angles to one another the landing at each change of direction is known as a quarter-space landing. With two flights per storey, this is the most common form of construction and takes up the least space on plan.