3. Epiphora – the repeated element comes at the end

e.g. …he had tried life as a coronet of dragoons, and found it a bore; and afterwards tried it in the train of an English minister abroad, and found it a bore; and then strolled to Jerusalem, and got bored there; and then gone yachting about the world, and got bored everywhere. (Dickens)

Government is not the problem and not the solution. We – the American people – we are the solution. (B.Clinton)

Epiphora regularises the rhythm to a still greater extent than anaphora, it makes prose resemble poetry

A combination of anaphora and epiphora in two or more adjacent sentences is termed symploce: a word or phrase is used successively at the beginning of two or more clauses or sentences and another word or phrase with a similar wording is used successively at the end of them.

e.g. If he wishes to float into fairyland, he reads a book; if he wishes to dash into the thick of battle, he reads a book; if he wishes to soar into heaven, he reads a book. (Chesterton)

3. successive repetition – a string of ordinary repetitions closely following each other

e.g. Scrooge went to bed again, and thought, and thought, and thought it over, and over, and over (Dickens)

This is the most emphatic type of repetition, which signifies the peak of emotions of the speaker.

5) framing repetition – the beginning of the sentence is repeated at the end, the repetition

forms a ‘frame’ for the non-repeated part of the utterance:

e.g. Money is what he is after, money! (Galore).

Never wonder. By means of addition, multiplication and division, settle everything somehow, and never wonder (Dickens)

The function of framing repetition is to elucidate the notion mentioned at the beginning of the utterance. By the second mentioning of the same notion its semantics is specified and made more concrete.

3. anadiplosis (catch repetition, linking repetition) – the final element of one part of the utterance (clause, sentence, paragraph) is repeated at the very beginning of the next part:

e.g. With Bewick on my knee, I was then happy: happy at least in my own way. (Bronte).

We were talking about how bad we were – bad from a medical point of view. (Jerome)

Anadiplosis also serves to specify the semantics of the repeated unit.

3. chain repetition – several successive reduplications:

e.g. A smile came into Mr.Pickwick’s face, the smile extended into a laugh, the laugh into a roar, and the roar became general. (Dickens)

И вот начинается песня о ветре,/О ветре одетом в солдатские гетры, /О гетрах, идущих дорогой войны, /О войнах, которым стихи не нужны. (М.Светлов)

The effect of chain repetition is that of the smoothly developing logical reasoning.

The stylistic functions of repetitions are the following:

• to intensify the utterance,

• to emphasize the repeated element,

• to specify the repeated element,

• to create rhythm,

• to add emotional colouring to the utterance.

Parallel syntactical constructions

Parallel constructions (syntactical parallelism) is based on repetition of the syntactical structure of two or more successive sentences:

e.g. The cock is crowing,

The stream is flowing (W. Wordsworth)

- repetition of the same model in each line of the poem

Parallel constructions bring out and emphasize at once the logical, emotive and rhythmic aspects of the utterance.

Pure parallel constructions is only repetition of the syntactical pattern of the utterance. Parallelism is often backed up by repetition of words, conjunctions or prepositions:

e.g. The seeds you sow- another reaps,

The robes you weave – another wears,

The arms ye forge – another bears. (Shelley)

It is also frequently used together with enumeration, antithesis, climax or alliteration. It serves to bring out and emphasize this or that syntactical device and produces a strong effect.

Parallel constructions may be partial and complete.

Complete parallelism (also called ‘balance’) is based on the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences:

e.g. Too much sound deafens us; too much light dazzles us; too much distance or proximity dazzles our view.

Partial paralellism is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses:

e.g. We spoke about good and evil, about love and hatred, about kindness and cruelty.

Parallel constructions are used in different styles with different functions:

• in the matter-of-fact styles this device carries the idea of semantic equality of the parts, which contributes to the logical principle of arrangement of parts,

• in poetry and emotive prose it has an emotive and aesthetic functions: it creates rhythm, adds expressiveness.

Parallel constructions are often used in public speeches:

e.g. We see the hope of tomorrow in the youth of today. (R.Nixon)

The second third of this century has been a time of proud achievement. We have made enormous strides in science and agriculture. We have shared our wealth more broadly than ever. We have learned at last to manage economy to assure its continued growth.

CHIASMUS

Ciasmus is a reversed parallelism: two syntactical constructions are parallel, but their members change places; the second part of the construction is inversion of the first part:

e.g. Down dropped the breeze,/ The sails dropped down (Coleridge)

What is learned unwillingly is gladly forgotten

ANTITHESIS

Antithesis is a device of setting one thing against the other, which focuses on differences instead of similarity.

Antithesis is generally found in parallel constructions, because opposite features of the two objects are more easily perceived when they stand in similar structures. We can say that Antithesis is a semantic opposition emphasized by parallel construction.

e.g. Youth is lovely, age is lonely,

Youth is fiery, age is frosty

Usually Antithesis is based on the leading pair of antonyms and the supporting pair of words opposed in their meanings.

e.g.: Some people have much to live on, and little to live for (O.Wilde)

According to prof. Screbnev there are several variants of antithesis, and two of them are the following:

1. two semantically opposed words characterize the same object (phenomenon). The aim of this type is to show the complicated nature of the thing, the dialectal unity of opposing features:

e.g. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the era of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness… (Dickens)

2. two semantically opposed words characterize different objects the main function is to stress complete opposition of two phenomena:

e.g. Youth is full of pleasance,/ Age is full of care,/

Youth like summer morn,/ Age like winter winter weather

The functions of all types of Antithesis are the following:

• rhythm-forming (because of the parallel constructions0

• copulative (binds the structures and ideas together)

• dissevering

• comparative (helps to compare things discovering the inner contradictions and differences)

Usually one function is the leading one.

Antithesis is often used in public speeches of American parliamentaries:

e.g. We must strengthen education – not attack it. We must abolish illiteracy, not abide it. We must invest in Star Schools here on earth, not Star Wars in the sky. (E.Kennedy, 1988)