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Jean-Philippe Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734. The critic implied that the novelty in this opera was "du barocque", complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.

Modern taste and usage

The word was first rehabilitated by the Swiss-born art historian, Heinrich Wölfflin

(1864–1945) in his Renaissance und Barock (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass," an art antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has largely remained in critical favour. For example the often extreme Sicilian Baroque architecture is today recognised largely due to the work of Sir Sacheverall Sitwell, whose Southern Baroque Art of 1924 was the first book to appreciate the style, followed by the more academic work of Anthony Blunt. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of taste.

In art history it has become common to recognise "Baroque" stylistic phases, characterized by energetic movement and display, in earlier art, so that Sir John Boardman describes the ancient sculpture Laocoön and His Sons as "one of the finest examples of the Hellenistic baroque", and a later phase of Imperial Roman sculpture is also often called Baroque. William Watson describes a late phase of Shang dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as "baroque".

The term "Baroque" may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line.

The Baroque originated around 1600, several decades after the Council of Trent (1545–63), by which the Roman Catholic Church answered many questions of internal reform, addressed the representational arts by demanding that paintings and sculptures in church contexts should speak to the illiterate rather than to the well-informed. This turn toward a populist conception of the function of ecclesiastical art is seen by many art historians as driving the innovations of Caravaggio and brothers Agostino and Annibale Carracci, all of who were working (and competing for commissions) in Rome around 1600.

The appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, and theatrical (illustration, right). Baroque art drew on certain broad and heroic tendencies in Annibale Carracci and his circle, and found inspiration in other artists like Correggio and Caravaggio and Federico Barocci (illustration, right), nowadays sometimes termed 'proto-Baroque'. Germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Some general parallels in music make the expression "Baroque music" useful: there are contrasting phrase lengths, harmony

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and counterpoint have ousted polyphony, and orchestral color makes a stronger appearance. Even more generalized parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style and poetry, are harder to pinpoint.

Though Baroque was superseded in many centers by the Rococo style, beginning in France in the late 1720s, especially for interiors, paintings and the decorative arts, the Baroque style continued to be used in architecture until the advent of Neoclassicism in the later 18th century. See the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace (though in a chaste exterior) whose construction began in 1752.

In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures: less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, a major Baroque art form. Baroque poses depend on contrapposto ("counterpoise"), the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. See Bernini's David.

The dryer, less dramatic and coloristic, chastened later stages of 18th century Baroque architectural style are often seen as a separate Late Baroque manifestation, for example in buildings by Claude Perrault. Academic characteristics in the neo-Palladian style, epitomized by William Kent, are a parallel development in Britain and the British colonies: within interiors, Kent's furniture designs are vividly influenced by the Baroque furniture of Rome and Genoa, hierarchical tectonic sculptural elements, meant never to be moved from their positions, completed the wall decoration. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail.

The Baroque was defined by Heinrich Wölfflin as the age where the oval replaced the circle as the center of composition, that centralization replaced balance, and that coloristic and "painterly" effects began to become more prominent. Art historians, often Protestant ones, have traditionally emphasized that the Baroque style evolved during a time in which the Roman Catholic Church had to react against the many revolutionary cultural movements that produced a new science and new forms of religion—Reformation. It has been said that the monumental Baroque is a style that could give the Papacy, like secular absolute monarchies, a formal, imposing way of expression that could restore its prestige, at the point of becoming somehow symbolic of the Counter-Reformation.

Whether this is the case or not, it was successfully developed in Rome, where Baroque architecture widely renewed the central areas with perhaps the most important urbanistic revision.

Periods

Early Baroque, c.1590–c.1625

High Baroque, c.1625–c.1660

Late Baroque, c.1660–c.1725

Painting

A defining statement of what Baroque signifies in painting is provided by the series of paintings executed by Peter Paul Rubens for Marie de Medici at the

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Luxembourg Palace in Paris (now at the Louvre), in which a Catholic painter satisfied a Catholic patron: Baroque-era conceptions of monarchy, iconography, handling of paint, and compositions as well as the depiction of space and movement.

Baroque style featured "exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism". Baroque art did not really depict the life style of the people at that time; however, "closely tied to the Counter-Reformation, this style melodramatically reaffirmed the emotional depths of the Catholic faith and glorified both church and monarchy" of their power and influence.

There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona; both approaching emotive dynamism with different styles. Another frequently cited work of Baroque art is Bernini's Saint Theresa in Ecstasy for the Cornaro chapel in Saint Maria della Vittoria, which brings together architecture, sculpture, and theatre into one grand conceit.

The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo.

A rather different art developed out of northern realist traditions in 17th century Dutch Golden Age painting, which had very little religious art, and little history painting, instead playing a crucial part in developing secular genres such as still life, genre paintings of everyday scenes, and landscape painting. While the Baroque nature of Rembrandt's art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while also continuing to produce the traditional categories.

In a similar way the French classical style of painting exemplified by Poussin is often classed as Baroque, and does share many qualities of the Italian painting of the same period, although the poise and restraint derived from following classical ideas typically give it a very different overall mood.

Sculpture

In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms—they spiraled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. For the first time, Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example, concealed lighting, or water fountains. Aleijadinho in Brazil was also one of the great names of baroque sculpture, and his master work is the set of statues of the Santuário de

Bom Jesus de Matosinhos in Congonhas. The soapstone sculptures of old testament prophets around the terrace are considered amongst his finest work.

The architecture, sculpture and fountains of Bernini (1598–1680) give highly charged characteristics of Baroque style. Bernini was undoubtedly the most important sculptor of the Baroque period. He approached Michelangelo in his omnicompetence: Bernini sculpted, worked as an architect, painted, wrote plays, and staged spectacles. In the late 20th century Bernini was most valued for his sculpture, both for his virtuosity in carving marble and his ability to create figures

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that combine the physical and the spiritual. He was also a fine sculptor of bust portraits in high demand among the powerful.

Saint Theresa, the focal point of the chapel, is a soft white marble statue surrounded by a polychromatic marble architectural framing. This structure conceals a window which lights the statue from above. Figure-groups of the Cornaro family sculpted in shallow relief inhabit opera boxes on the two side walls of the chapel. The setting places the viewer as a spectator in front of the statue with the Cornaro family leaning out of their box seats and craning forward to see the mystical ecstasy of the saint.

St. Theresa is highly idealized and in an imaginary setting. She was a popular saint of the Catholic Reformation. She wrote of her mystical experiences for an audience of the nuns of her Carmelite Order; these writings had become popular reading among lay people interested in spirituality. In her writings, she described the love of God as piercing her heart like a burning arrow. Bernini materializes this by placing St. Theresa on a cloud while a Cupid figure holds a golden arrow made of metal and smiles down at her. The angelic figure is not preparing to plunge the arrow into her heart—rather, he has withdrawn it. St. Theresa's face reflects not the anticipation of ecstasy, but her current fulfillment.

This work is widely considered a masterpiece of the Baroque, although the mix of religious and erotic imagery (faithful to St Teresa's own written account) may raise modern eyebrows. However, Bernini was a devout Catholic and was not attempting to satirize the experience of a chaste nun. Rather, he aimed to portray religious experience as an intensely physical one. Theresa described her bodily reaction to spiritual enlightenment in a language of ecstasy used by many mystics, and Bernini's depiction is earnest.

The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in this chapel; they are represented visually, but are placed on the sides of the chapel, witnessing the event from balconies. As in an opera house, the Cornaro have a privileged position in respect to the viewer, in their private reserve, closer to the saint; the viewer, however, has a better view from the front. They attach their name to the chapel, but St. Theresa is the focus. It is a private chapel in the sense that no one could say mass on the altar beneath the statue (in 17th century and probably through the 19th) without permission from the family, but the only thing that divides the viewer from the image is the altar rail. The spectacle functions both as a demonstration of mysticism and as a piece of family pride.

Architecture

In Baroque architecture, new emphasis was placed on bold massing, colonnades, domes, light-and-shade (chiaroscuro), 'painterly' color effects, and the bold play of volume and void. In interiors, Baroque movement around and through a void informed monumental staircases that had no parallel in previous architecture. The other Baroque innovation in worldly interiors was the state apartment, a sequence of increasingly rich interiors that culminated in a presence chamber or throne room or a state bedroom. The sequence of monumental stairs followed by a state

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apartment was copied in smaller scale everywhere in aristocratic dwellings of any pretensions.

Baroque architecture was taken up with enthusiasm in central Germany (see, e.g., Ludwigsburg Palace and Zwinger, Dresden), Austria and Russia (see, e.g., Peterhof). In England the culmination of Baroque architecture was embodied in work by Sir Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor, from ca. 1660 to ca. 1725. Many examples of Baroque architecture and town planning are found in other European towns, and in Latin America. Town planning of this period featured radiating avenues intersecting in squares, which took cues from Baroque garden plans. In Sicily, Baroque developed new shapes and themes as in Noto, Ragusa and Acireale "Basilica di San Sebastiano".

Another example of Baroque architecture is the Cathedral of Morelia Michoacan in Mexico. Built in the 17th century by Vincenzo Barrochio, it is one of the many Baroque cathedrals in Mexico. Baroque churches are also seen in the Philippines, which were built during the Spanish period.

Francis Ching described Baroque architecture as "a style of architecture originating in Italy in the early 17th century and variously prevalent in Europe and the New World for a century and a half, characterized by free and sculptural use of the classical orders and ornament, dynamic opposition and interpenetration of spaces, and the dramatic combined effects of architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts."

К разделу VII

Искусство XIX вв. Art of the XIX century.

XIX Century Dutch and Flemish Painting. Collection of the National Museum of Fine Arts

From the museum's press release, 11 July 2012

The exhibition XIX Century Dutch and Belgian Painting. National Museum of Fine Arts Collection was opened on 25 May 2012, at the National Museum of Fine Arts of Havana. A group of paintings from the period will be shown for the first time. The event comes to complete the representation of the art of these two nations in the Museum, which permanently exhibits Flemish painting from the XVI and XVII centuries, and Dutch painting from the Golden Age.

The cooperation with the Stichting Cultuur Inventarisatie (SCI), and the International Network of Curators of Dutch and Flemish art (CODART), has allowed the museum curator to consent to bibliography, specialists and, mainly, to search the documentary files of the Rijksbureau voor Kunsthistorische Documentatie, to get deeper in the investigation of these paintings. Besides the Dutch institutions, the support of the Art 12 gallery and the Rubenianum Institute, both in Antwerp has been important . Thanks to them it was possible to move forwards in the research of the Belgian section of the exhibition. The embassies of both countries in Havana have been an effective bridge and played an active part in the achievement of these results.

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The exhibition, composed by twenty three works, offer a testimony of the painting production from the XIX century in Holland and Belgium. Portrait, genre scenes and landscapes constitute the thematic axes of the paintings, reflecting the context in witch they were conceived through diverse ways and artistic approaches.

There are pieces by Belgian painters like Alfred Stevens, one of the greatest exponents of Realism; Joseph Barthélemy Vieillevoye, director of the Academy of

Fine Arts of Liege during many years. Edmond du Schampheler, as well as Henri

Cleenewerck, a Belgian painter working in Cuba during the decade of 1960’s are also in the authors list.

The Dutch section, bigger than the Belgian one, presents works by important artists like Joseph Isräels, one of the most important figures of "The Hague School", the artistic movement at the end of the XIX century in that city, considered to be the second Dutch painting golden age. There are also paintings by Henri Mari ten Kate, Johannes Jacobus Paling, Johan Barthold Jongkind and Willen Maris, among others, related to romantic and realistic styles. There can be find also some more romantic paintings made after models by important XVII century artists like Paulus Potter and Claes Berchem.

Although we can’t find significant events of the XIX century Dutch and Belgian painting, the exhibition testify important moments of the history of both painting schools from that period in the collection of the National Museum of Fine Arts in Havana.

The first Impressionist exhibition

The first Impressionist exhibition took place from April 15 to May 15, 1874. Led by the French artists Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro and Berthe Morisot, they called themselves the Anonymous Society of Painters, Sculptors, Engravers, etc.

Thirty artists displayed 165 works at the photographer Nadar's former studio at 35 Boulevard des Capucines. The building was modern and the paintings were modern: pictures of contemporary life painted in a technique that looked unfinished to the art critics and general public. And, the works were on sale! Right there. (Although they had to remain on view for the duration of the show.)

Louis Leroy, a critic for Le Charivari, entitled his nasty, satirical review "Exhibition of Impressionists" which was inspired by Claude Monet's painting Impression: Sunrise, 1873. Leroy meant to discredit their work. Instead, he invented their identity.

However, the group did not call themselves "Impressionists" until their third show in 1877. They were also called the "Independents" and the "Intransigents," which implied political activism. (Pissarro was the only avowed anarchist.)

Artists Participating in the First Impressionist Exhibition: Zacharie Astruc

Antoine-Ferdinand Attendu

Édouard Béliard Eugène Boudin

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Félix Braquemond Édouard Brandon

Pierre-Isidore Bureau

Adolphe-Félix Cals Paul Cézanne

Gustave Colin

Louis Debras

Edgar Degas

Jean-Baptiste Armand Guillaumin Louis LaTouche Ludovic-Napoléon Lepic

Stanislas Lepine Jean-Baptiste-Léopold Levert Alfred Meyer

Auguste De Molins Claude Monet

Mademoiselle Berthe Morisot Mulot-Durivage

Joseph DeNittis Auguste-Louis-Marie Ottin Léon-Auguste Ottin Camille Pissarro Pierre-Auguste Renoir Stanislas-Henri Rouart

Léopold Robert

Alfred Sisley

Academism

In the 18th - early 19th centuries the pictorial art in Russia driven by cultural demands of the society, embraces all the major stages of Western art: baroque, classicism and romanticism. The leading role in this process belongs to foreign painters and sculptors invited to Russia, but already during the reign of Elizabeth I there appear gifted and highly skilled domestic masters. From the mid 18th century academism becomes the prevailing trend, with its austerity of drawing, strict rules of composition, conventionality of palette, use of scenes from the Bible, ancient history and mythology. However the greatest achievements of this period were gained in the portrait rather than in historic painting (A.Argunov, A.Antropov, F.Rokotov, D.Levitsky, V.Borovikovsky, O.Kiprensky). The first outstanding Russian master of sculptural portrait was F.Shubin.

The hey-day of the academic school falls on the first half of the 19th century. The paintings by Karl Bryullov are remarkable for the blending of academic classicism with romanticism, the novelty of subject matter, dramatic effect of the plastic and chiaroscuro, complexity of composition and brilliant virtuosity of the brush. The

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first to enter the path of free and unconventional creation, he aroused deep interest in the audience and raised the social role of Artist. Alexander Ivanov's works bearing the flavor of his self-giving to servicing the ideal, outdo the stereotypes of academic technique. Later the best traditions of academism find their development in the colossal historic pictures by G.Semiradsky.

In sculpture the conventions of classicism were shaken by Nikolai Pimenov, whose Boy playing at dibs was estimated by Alexander Pushkin as the birth of 'folk sculpture' and by I.Martos, with their works conveying the present traits of reality and acquiring actual sounding.

National theme

Social aspirations of the 1860s - 1870s wake up the artists' interest in folk life. The year 1872 saw the foundation of Association of traveling exhibitions as a counter to the Academy of Fine Arts. The famous Wanderers (among them Ilya Kramskoi, G.Myasoedov, K.Savitskiy, I.Pryanishnikov, V.Makovskyi, I.Yaroshenko and V.Perov) resort to genre painting acquiring exposal character in their works.

The turning to national themes resulted in an unheard blossoming of historic and military painting. Genuine masterpieces of these genres were created by V.Surikov, Ilya Repin, Nikolai Ge, V. Vasnetsov, V.Vereshchagin, F.Rubo.

Uncoined composition and historic truthfulness are combined with skillful use of plentiful artistic devices in interpretation of historic images and events. The historic theme has a powerful sounding in sculpture as well (P. Antokolskyi).

These years saw the opening of the first national galleries; works by Russian artists start appear regularly at international exhibitions and foreign art shows.

Attaining creative independence in the 19th century, Russian painting develops in the tideway of European fine arts. Genre painting gives way to landscape. Endeavors to render air and light and working plain air, which are characteristic of impressionism, can be seen in paintings by F.Vasiliev, I.Levitan, V.Polenov, V.Serov, K.Korovin, V.Kuinji and A.Arkhipov. Symbolism, neoclassicism and modern have a considerable influence on A.Vrubel and artists from the World of Art (A.Benua, L.Bakst, E.Lansere) and the Blue Rose (S.Sudeikin, N.Krymov, V.BorisovMusatov)

Avant-garde

Tropinin: One of the best Russian painters

Vasily Andreevich Tropinin (b 30th March 1776 /20th March 1780?(*) †

15th May 1857). Was born in Karpovo, Novgorod province (now Novgorod region). One of the major Russian artists of the first half of the XIX century. He

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was born as a serf of Count A. Munich and then was given as a part of Natalia Antonovna von Munich, Count Munich's daughter's dowry to Count Irakly Ivanovich Marcoff (Mорков)

He started his instruction as confectioner of Count Zavadsky, friend of Count Marcov. From 1793 on, he attended classes at the Academy of Art In St. Petersburg. In 1799, after recognition of his evident artistic talent, Count Marcoff (Mорков) paid for him to study further in the Academy. Tropinin took lessons from the portrait painter Stepan Shchukin (1762–1828), and was there at the same time as Kiprensky, whom he must have known. By copying the paintings of the great masters, he learned the heritage of Western European Art. The main influences were Jean Baptiste Greuze, Pietro Rotari and the XVII century Dutch and Flemish masters.

In St. Petersburg, in 1804 his work 'Boy Grieving for a Dead Bird' was selected for the Annual Academy of Arts exhibition and was notorious by the Empress. The same year (1804), Tropinin returned with his master; private counsellor Ivan Alekseevich Morkov (1761-1847), that as far as it is known was only friend and not a member of count Marcov's family, allowed the return of Tropinin with his master. For many more years he worked for Marcoff (Mорков), mostly as administrator of his property, and tutor to the count's children while painting the icons and others details for the church of Kukavka (Podolia gobernia, now Vinnitsa region, Ukraine) that was in construction. He occasionally visited Moscow and St. Petersburg where he continued to take art lessons. In the village Tropinin proceeded with his active painting practice. During these years he copied landscapes from nature and also painted nice boys and girls and icons. His early style is distinguished by freedom of execution and skill in the use of colour, but the compositions are derivative and the drawing weak. Count Morkov had a great affection for him although he did not want it to be noticed by others, and he did not want to lose him. After the exhibition of 1804, the president of the Academy of Arts, Count Stroganoff, interceded on behalf of Tropinin to get his freedom; on other occasion, and after losing a large amount of money playing cards, Count Morkov, was offered the chance to forgo the debt if he offered Tropinin freedom, but Count Marcoffpreferred to pay.

Tropinin became a very relevant person in the Count of Marcoff (Mорков) house, being preceptor of Count Marcoff's children. The welfare that Tropinin enjoyed in the house can be appreciated in the wealthy costumes used by his wife (Vasily Tropinin. 'Portrait of A. I. Tropinina, the Artist's Wife. 1809'. Oil on canvas. The Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia), in his studio and in other details, including the fact that Count Marcoff (Mорков) trusted the education of his children to him.

In Kukavka, he created many of his well known pictures.

After Kukavka the family of Count I. I. Marcoff (Mорков), and consequently

Tropinin, moved to Moscow. Count Marcov bought a big house that had belonged to Prince Golitsyn and later to Prince Dolgorukov, valorated in 100.000 rublos located between the Kamergerskiy pereuloc and the Georgiyesvkiy Pereuloc near the Trinity church, (nowadays references could be Tverskaya, and the back of the

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current building of the Duma). The second floor of the palace was dedicated to Tropinin's studio. On May 8th 1823, Tropinin was given freedom. In the same year he submitted the pictures 'The Lace-maker (1823)', 'Old Beggar (1823)', 'Portrait of E. O. Skotnikov (1821)' and later 'Portrait of K.A. Leberecht (1824)' to the Academy of Arts, and was nominated as an academician.

After 1823, Tropinin was established in his own right in Moscow and opened up his art studio. Already a well known artist, he continued to paint portraits. His models ranged from peasants to members of the most noble Russian families including S. M. Golitsin, State Counselor and member of the famous Golitsin family.

On September 30th 1823 he asked for a rank as scientific to the government of Moscow.

The stone in the grave of Tropinin had to birthdates. Accordingly with the stone side that was ordered by his son, he died on the 78th year of his life, consequently he must have born in 1780. This could explain the comments of a "young child of a count court" describing him on the 1790'. Her wife died on September 30th 1855 at 75 years of age. The tomb of Tropin was situated at Vagankov cemetery and was maintained by his grandson as late as 1948.

The best of his works are 'Portrait of K. G. Ravich (1823)', 'Embroideress (1826)', 'Portrait of Alexander Pushkin (1827)', 'Portrait of Countess N. A. Zubova (1834)', 'Woman in the Window (Wife of a Treasurer) (1841)', 'Self-Portrait with Brushes and a Palette Against the Window Facing the Kremlin (1844)', 'Portrait of Y. F. Samarin in a Hunting Dress (1846)', 'Girl with a Pot of Roses (1850)', 'Old Woman with a Hen (Portrait of the Artist's Wife?) (1856)'. Tropinin died on 3rd of May, 1857 and was buried in Moscow. During the Soviet period the true story and the relationship between Tropinin and the Morkov family was roughly forged, stressing the role of Tropinin as "slave" and his master as «cruel capricious grandee», out of his time context (serfs were then a social status completely normal at that time; even relevant members of the church such as priests, bishops, etc had serfs) and the ―cruelty‖ of the count I.I.

Morkov as a part of the soviet system programmed propaganda against nobility. For a time, even Morkov descendants at URSS schools had to learn about the

―cruelty‖ of the count's family.

К разделу VIII

Искусство XX – начала XXI века. The art of XX - beginning of XXI century.

Разработчик:

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