Архитектура Строительство_Ин Яз

PART III

Amsterdam

The city of Amsterdam (formerly Amsterdam) lies at latitude 52°22'30" north and longitude 4°53'48" east, in the Dutch province of North Holland. The centre of the old town, Dam Square, lies 2.20 meters above sea level on flat peat land at the dammed mouth of the River Amstel south of the IJ, an extended bay of the former Zuiderzee. The city covers an area of 20,743 ha, of which 4,184 ha are water. The population of Amsterdam in 2003 was 719,500 - 5.24% of the Netherlands' 13.8m inhabitants.

Amsterdam was the most important trading city of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces (1588-1795). Only in 1813 did Amsterdam become the capital of the Netherlands, when after the French occupation (1795-1813) the Kingdom of the Netherlands was founded. The title of capital is only a symbolic one, since the seat of the government, the ministries and the Parliament remain in the Hague, the old residence of the Counts of Holland, which had also since the end of the 16th century been the seat of central institutions of the Republic, the Prince of Orange, the Stadtholder, and the government of the province of Holland. The kings of the House of Orange, however, are inaugurated in Amsterdam's New Church on Dam Square.

The oldest document mentioning Amsterdam is a toll privilege granted by Count Floris V of Holland in 1275 to the homines manentes apud Amestelledamme, the people living near the Amstel Dam. The inhabitants were exempted from paying toll-dues to the Count in the interests of their trade. The dam across the River Amstel was not much older than the town itself, dating back to about 1270. Thanks to the privilege granted in 1275, Amsterdam was able to establish itself as a trading town, and development began quickly. Amsterdam received civic rights under a charter from Guy of Hainault, Lord of Amstel; these rights were confirmed in 1342 by William IV of Hainault, Count of Holland.

About 1300 the city government consisted of schout en schepenen (sheriff and aldermen) who exercised jurisdiction, enacted keuren (regulations), managed the city's affairs with specialized assistance from four raden or burgemeesters (councillors or burgomasters). During the 14th century the burgomasters became the actual governors of the city, with particular charge of municipal finances and public works such as care of the town ramparts, walls, dykes and canals, and the Town Hall and other municipal buildings, while the power of the burgomasters grew, the duties of the sheriff and aldermen were gradually confined to jurisdiction. In the first half of the 15th century the care of the municipal finances and the execution of public works were delegated to a board of four thesaurieren

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(treasurers) under the supervision of the burgomasters, who also supervised in the second half of the 15th century the board of fabriekmeesters or timmermeesters (masters of the works or master carpenters), which was charged with executing public works and ensuring the observance of building regulations.

The medieval town centre near St Olof's Gate was surrounded by a wall from 1380. A new fortress was built in 1481. The oldest monuments are the ecclesiastic institutions of the various religions. The originally cruciform Oude Kerk (Old Church) dates from the 13th century. The Beguine Dutch lay order was existing in 1346. Their buildings became known as the Begijnhof (Beguinage). The oldest, the Wooden House (No. 34), dates from the second half of the 15th century; No. 6 still possesses a wooden frame behind its stone facade. The Oudezijds or St Olof's Chapel (Oudersplein 13), in origin a 15th century chapel, had been adjoined to the St Olof's Gate demolished in the 17th c. The Nieuwe Kerk (New Church) on Dam Square is a three-aisled, in part five-aisled basilica built originally in the 15th century but several times destroyed by fire and rebuilt. The Oude Walenkerk (Old Walloon Church) was also begun in the 15th century; since 1578 it has served a congregation of French-speaking Calvinists.

The oldest type of house in Amsterdam was made of wood, but it gradually gave way to stone housing because of the fire risk. The only wooden houses still in existence are in the Begijnhof and in the Zeedijk. Amsterdam's most typical houses are narrow and deep and with one or two floors built on a voorhuis (hall) with in insteek, a room forming a kind of gallery to the hall. There was sometimes an independent achterhuis behind. Until 1650 most houses were built with stepped gables, from which more elaborate versions such as the Vredeman de Vries and the Hendrick de Keyser types developed. The stepped gable was superseded by the 'neck' facade, sometimes divided by pilasters, the most beautiful examples of which were designed by Philips Vingboons.

The 16th century was a period of unrest, in which the Reformation coincided with mounting opposition to absolutism. The enmities were deepened as the County of Holland, just like the other Dutch provinces, was in personal union with the House of Habsburg. During the reign of Philip II (1555-1581), King of Spain, a growing resistance to the activities of the Inquisition and other measures that conflicted with Dutch interests led to the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648). Amsterdam joined the side of the revolt only in 1578, but played an important role in the independent republic that was formed on the basis of the Union of Utrecht in 1579.

In spite of its rather unfavourable position on the Zuiderzee, Amsterdam in the 15th and particularly the 16th century developed into the foremost trading city of Holland, with its activities centring on the Baltic trade. The oldest parts of the town are bounded by the Burg-wallen (city canals), within which the shipping business was originally confined. Later, room for shipping activities was found at the Oude Waal and Kromme Waal outside the fortifications in the area known as the Lastage.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Amsterdam became the centre for trade with the East Indies and a world port and staple city for colonial goods. The East

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and West Indian Companies built warehouses, offices, shipyards and maintenance yards.

From 1613 onwards the old medieval centre was enlarged with the famous ring of canals, which was enclosed by the fortified Singelgracht. Windmills were built on the ramparts of this canal, and a wooden palisade, closed at night, was built around the IJ harbour. Five gates opening onto the roads to Weesp, Muiden, Utrecht, Leiden and Haarlem were built in the walls.

Regulations prescribed what sort of factories could be allowed within the walls. Outside there was a strange medley of little workshops, poor housing and taverns, especially along the Amstel, Boerenwetering and Over-toom. The town expansion plan of 1613 (which was more or less implemented by 1662) was so lavish that there was room inside the city walls for recreation areas like the Plantage, a popular space for taverns and summer cottages.

Zuiderkerk (South Church), the first Protestant church of Amsterdam, was built between 1603 and 1611 by the architect Hendrick de Keyser. It is a fine example of Dutch Renaissance with sandstone columns and richly ornamented facades, now restored and used as a social . and cultural centre for the neighbourhood. The various denominations all built important churches: the Roman Catholic hiding church Ons' Lieve Heer op Zolder (Our Dear Lord on the Loft, 1662-3), the Mennonite hiding church Het Lam (The Lamb, 1607) and the Oude Lutherse Kerk (Old Lutheran Church, 1633). The Portuguese Synagogue, built in 1671-1675 and designed by Elias Bouman, stands in a courtyard. Stalpaert's I7th century Grote Sjoel (Great Synagogue) and Maybaum's 18th century Meije Sjoel (New Synagogue) form a single building.

The city's visual character stems from its administrative and commercial buildings, from which an idea of the city's commercial and industrial activities can be had. The Royal Palace on Dam Square was originally built as a town hall (164862). The former St Anthony's Gate (1488) was converted into the Waag (Weighbridge House, 1617-18), where a number of gilds had rooms on the upper storey. The characteristic De Geyer (Corn Mill) dates from the same period, and so does the Munttoren (Mint Tower). The Harbour Office used to be the Schreierstoren, a rampart tower from the later Middle Ages. The Trip family's Trippenhuis is a characteristic building with chimneys in the form of barrels, to recall the guns manufactured in the Trip foundries.

Houses along the canals in the 18th century were mostly built in the Louis XIV, XV and XVI styles. All the bridges were built in the lyth and 18th centuries, either with stone arches or simply on wooden piles. Where it became necessary drawbridges were also built of which the Magere Bridge crossing the Amstel and Sloterdijk bridge on Prinsen Island are the most beautiful. In the igth century numerous arched bridges were lowered and transformed into girder bridges. (Later, with the exception of two, the igth c. bridges were removed.)

The 17th century was a flourishing period in the architecture of Amsterdam. It was then that the foundation stone of the New Town Hall and of the Bourse were laid, and churches, towers and numerous welfare institutions were built. The architect Hendrick de Keyser designed the Westerkerk, the Zuiderkerk, and

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perhaps the Noorderkerk too. He also designed the_Bourse, the Munttoren, the Montelbaanstoren and the Haring-pakkerstoren. The architect of the New Town Hall was Jacob van Campen, assisted by Daniel Stalpaert.

In the mid-17th century the Palladian style appeared, the most mature examples of which are the plain sandstone facades, ornamented by Dutch Renaissance pilasters, of Philips Vingsboons. Later numerous Neo-classical buildings such as the City Hall were built in this style. But the roads serving these new large edifices remained uncompleted as the development of Amsterdam slowed down in the 18th century and were only finished in the mid-19th century.

Administrative changes followed the periods of economic activity. In the 16th century, a single fabriekmeester was in charge of the execution of public works with timmermeester and stadsmetselaar (town bricklayer) as his subordinates. After 1501 building inspection was passed to the rooimeesters (surveyors). The fabriekmeester had to account for his expenses to the treasurers. After the end of the 16th century, a clear distinction was made between the administrative duties of the fabriekmeester and the technical duties of the stadsmeester-timmerman (master architect), stadsmeestermetselaar (master bricklayer), and stadsmeestersteenhouwer (master stone mason). From 1633 the treasurers directly supervised public works, and thus the town masters, whose number was increased again (geometer, superintendent of digging and earthworks, water, locks, and so on). In 1746 all the above-mentioned officials were subordinated to one DirecteurGeneraal van Stadswerken en Gebouwen (Director-General of City Works and Buildings). From 1777 three directors were appointed, each with his own department, including one for archi-tectura civilis, the city's buildings. In 1809, a Commissaris over de Publieke Werken (Commissioner of Public Works) was appointed. The number of the departments and directors changed several times. From 1820 to 1850 two departments existed: the director of the Stads-fabriekambt (City Building Office) and the director of the City Water Works. After several reorganizations, the activities of the stadsarchitect, the stadsingenieur and the Commissioner of the Public Works were merged into the Dienst der Publieke Werken (Public Works Service), under the control of the Alderman for Public Works. As parts of this Service grew the Architect's Office and the Engineer's Office.

The Batavian Revolution brought a change in the political structure of the state. After the entry of the French army, the pro-Orange government resigned. In 1813 the Kingdom of the Netherlands was established after the flight of the French. In the mid-19th century Amsterdam went through a crisis due to a recession that affected the port, trade and industry. The problems of urbanization were also multiplying. Growing immigration from the country to the city caused a lack of housing, and people sometimes even lived in cellars. The silting up of the Zuiderzee caused pollution of the canals.

The city corporation was unable to develop a plan to compare with the 17th century city. Slowly the city even began to sell the land that it did possess. The 1866 design of the city engineer Van Niftrik for a new girdle of residential and

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industrial districts around the 17th century city, with many parks and wide streets, was rejected.

Extension and enlargement of the city fell into the hands of private individuals, who sought the cheaper solution of following existing patterns and adding one street after another. That was the way in which igth century districts like De Pijp in the south, Dapperbuurt in the east, and Staatsliedenbuurt and Kinkerbuurt in the west were developed. Although the streets were laid out according to plans provided by the city, the authorities were unable to ensure housing standards, and maintenance of the new buildings was neglected for lack of money. Under the pretext of modernization numerous 17th century monuments, gates and towers were demolished. In the 20th century rehabilitation of these 19th century districts became an urgent task.

Gradually the city authorities became better able to improve conditions for economic development and allow standards of public hygiene to improve.

First the harbour was provided with a better entrance when the Groot Noordhollands Kanaal (Great North Holland Canal, 1819-24) was dug from Den Helder to Amsterdam, and two new harbours, Oosterdok (1832) and Westerdok (1834), were built. However, the length of the Groot Noordhollands Canal prevented it from being a success, and only when the Noordzeekanal (North Sea Canal) from IJmuiden to Amsterdam opened in 1876 was the desired result fully achieved. In 1871 plans were put forward for ensuring the circulation of the water hi the city's canals. The most important step towards higher standards of hygiene was the opening in 1851 of the central waterworks. The gas, electricity and transport networks were developed. Each had originally been in private hands, but later the city authorities took them over, leading to the foundation of the Gas en Elec-triciteitsbedrijf (Gas and Electricity Service), Gemeente-waterleidingen (City Waterworks), and Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf (City Transport Service).

From 1874 the City Council gave financial support to housing construction. The Housing Act of 1901 helped improve housing conditions by giving local authorities greater powers to regulate house-building and also to build cheaper housing themselves. The Act also gave local authorities the power to declare housing unfit for habitation and required the authorities in all towns with more than 10,000 inhabitants to prepare ten-year development plans. An indirect result of the Housing Act was H. P. Berlage's plans for the enlargement of South Amsterdam (1917). In 1915 the City Council elaborated its own housing construction plan.

The city raised buildings of central importance: the Central Station (P. J. H. Cuypers and A. L. van Gendt, 1879-89); the Rijksmuseum (P. J. H. Cuypers, 1885); the Stedelijk Museum (A. W. Weissman, 1892-5) inspired by the Dutch and French Renaissance architecture of the 17th century. The Concertgebouw (A. L. van Gendt, 1883-6) was reminiscent of contemporary Viennese architecture.

As in the other European countries in the 19th century, the Neoclassical, Neogothic, and later Jugendstil (art nouveau) became dominant in Amsterdam. The squares and parks of Amsterdam were mainly laid out in the igth century. Dam Square is the oldest and best-known square in Amsterdam, near the dam across the River Amstel. At the beginning of the 20th century it was decided to give the

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square a more grandiose air; several older buildings were demolished and office buildings and department stores put up in their stead. The square gained a more monumental air but also emptied, since many pubs and small shops disappeared. Of the other squares, the Leidseplein, Wecsperplcin and Haar-lemmerpleinwere old stage-coach stations, the Rembrandt plein was originally the buttermarket. The first gradually developed into an amusement centre. The Waterlooplein came into being in 1882 when the Leprozengracht and Houtgracht were filled in. Till 1977 a famous flea market was held there until it had to make way for the future building of the city hall, to the designs of the Viennese architect Holzbauer.

The Museumplein, originally a vacant area between the Rijksmuseum and the Concertgebouw, was created in the 19th century and received its present form in 1952.

In the first half of the 19th century, the stadsrooimces-ters were in charge of inspecting building and demolition work by private builders. In 1858 the bouwopzichters (building superintendents) took their place. In 1901 a special City Building and Housing Inspectorate was set up. The Inspectorate, until 1915, also supervised the housing associations, the oldest of which dated from 1852.

To prepare extension plans for the city, the public works department set up a city development department in 1928 with the task of designing new extensions of the city. Basis for Amsterdam's expansion was provided by the Algemeen Uitbreidingsplan (General Extension Plan) of 1934.

In the 20th century the old centre ha changed both in outward appearance and function. Living and working, which existed side by side in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, have become separated by increasing distances. The residential houses along the canals were transformed into offices, while the population living in the narrow streets between the canals and in the older residential areas like the Jewish Quarter and the East and West Islands decreased. In 1928 a Voorlopige Monumentlijst (Register of Monuments) was introduced and symbolized a different, more positive appraisal of the old city. But it was only a schedule - owners were under no obligation to apply for planning permission from the city before pulling a historic monument or building down. The situation changed only after the bombing of Rotterdam in 1940. Thereafter scheduled historic monuments and buildings, and even their entire environment, enjoyed state protection. Some parts of Amsterdam were scheduled as Beschermd Stadsgezicht (Protected City Area). Seven thousand dwelling houses and 200 public buildings were scheduled in the Monumentenlijst van Amsterdam (List of Amsterdam Monuments), to which have now been added the most important buildings of the I9th and 20th centuries.

Since 1953 the independent City Bureau Monumen-tenzorg (Office of Monument Protection) has been in operation, with its own budget for restoration work. A third of Amsterdam's monuments have been restored. In 1969 Parliament passed a Monuments Act. Nevertheless, between 1945 and 1970, the pattern of some streets in the eastern part of the city, like Weesperstraat and Jodenbreestraat, were altered to improve traffic flow. The preparations for the building of the new City Hall at Waterlooplein and the construction of the first underground railway led to many streets being pulled down. Several hundred houses were demolished to

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make way for a new cross-town highway, the Haarlemmer Houttuinen, but it was decided to modify the project after the climate of public opinion changed. The loss of so many buildings in the old quarters since 1970 has brought a greater emphasis on the protection of architectural monuments; it has been decided to build narrower streets and to restore many houses. It has also been decided to abandon plans for a complete underground railway system, since it would have involved too much demolition.

The small scale of the inner city cannot handle large volumes of traffic, which has led some industrial and commercial concerns to move to the new southern and western parts of the city, nearer to the highway that encircles the city. A number of separated traffic-free tram-lanes have been made in the city.

Several associations have been founded for the preservation of monuments, and the restoration of old housing has gathered momentum since 1950.

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Athens

Athens, the capital of Greece, lies at latitude 37058/ north and longitude 23043/ east, across a plain starting about 6 km. from the sea, at a height of 100 m. above sea level.

The city is surrounded on three sides by mountains and opens towards the sea only on the western side. The surrounding mountains are Parnes( 1,440 m.), Pentelicon (1,108 m.), Hymettos (1,026 m.) and Aigaleos (476 m.), with four passes giving access to the rest of Greece.

The present area of Greater Athens is 433 sq.km. with a population of about 2,540,000, which is about 38% of the population of Greece. Greater Athens belongs to the Nomos of Attica and consists of 99 demes (municipalities) and communities.

The green belts of Greater Athens now cover only 1.8% of the total area. Most of the mountains are barren rock with no vegetation. The water output of the small rivers known since ancient times (the Kephissos and the Ilissos) is today insignificant; water supplies come primarily from the reservoire created by the Marathon Dam and from Lake Hyliki and, in the near future, will also be supplied from the Mornos River.

The earliest signs of human habitation on the site of the present city date back to around 4000 BC, the late Neolithic Age.

The ancient nucleus of the city, the fortified dtadel on the Acropolis, later known as the Upper Town, is still the symbol of Athens. Little is known about the extent and layout of the settlements developed around it in the Neolithic Age. Apparently the inhabitants engaged in agriculture, cattle-breeding, manufacture of pottery and trade. Traces of Neolithic settlements have also been found in the area which later became the site of Plato's Academy, on Strephi Hill and in the Olympieion region. There are also traces of 30 Neolithic settlements all around Attica (Nea Makri, Palaia Kokkinia and others).

In the Early Bronze Age (also known as the Early Helladic period, 2600-2000 BC) the population of Athens increased steadily and there is evidence of strong influence from the Cyclades.

In the Middle Bronze Age (the Middle Helladic period, 2000-1600 BC) the area of the city grew continuously. Traces of dwellings have been found on and around the Acropolis, on the hill of the Areopagus, and at the sites later occupied by the Ancient Agora, the Kerameikos and the Olympieion area.

Several important routes developed in Athens itself. One of them led from the area of the Agora, the later civic center, to the site which later became Plato's Academy. A second route, the ancestor of the later Panathenaic Way, connected

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the southern part of the later Agora with the approach to the Acropolis, while another road branched off towards the south slope of the Acropolis. Other roads along hilltops and river valleys were destined to link Athens with the surrounding settlements of Attica. Since the roads followed the contours of the terrain, they remained essentially unchanged during the centuries.

Athens' importance grew in the Late Bronze Age (Late Helladic or Mycenaean Age, around 1600-1100 BC). The Mycenaean fortification wall on the Acropolis, 4-6 m. wide, the remarkable Mycenaean Spring Stairway in the Acropolis' North Slope and a second outer fortification wall protecting the western approach to the Acropolis were built between 1240 and 1200 BC. The fortification walls together and separately were called the Pelargikon. In the i3th century BC Athens was surely the centre of a Mycenaean-type kingdom. Judging by the tholos tombs excavated at Thorikos, Spata,

Marathon and Achamai, it may be assumed that the territory of Atdca comprised several kingdoms. In the Mycenaean period the royal palace of Athens and houses were built on the Acropolis.

The area occupied by Athens expanded during the last phase of the Mycenaean period. Settlement continued on the site of the Olympieion and new residential districts developed to the south, at the end of present-day Dimitrakopoulou St. The unification of Attica into a single homogeneous state was ascribed to Theseus in the mythical tradition. This probably happened at the end of the 8th century BC. Even so, it is thought that in the 13th century BC the inhabited area (the Acropolis and surroundings) already amounted to about 90,000 square metres. At this time there were about seventy settlements throughout Attica. In all probability, the endeavours to centralize had led to wars and Athenian myths preserve numerous instances of conflicts. However, the Athenians attributed the unification of the scattered settlements to their favourite hero, Theseus, and celebrated the event with the Synoikia festival and the Panathenaic festival. According to legend, Athene or Kranaa or Kekropia, the later city of Athens, was the most important of the twelve small Attic states. The town was named Athinai (Athens) in the plural after the merger of the different kingdoms. Today the city still goes by the ancient name.

During the Mycenaean period the burial ground of the inhabitants of the Acropolis was on the north-eastern dope of the hill named Areopagus. Material excavated from the rich chamber tombs is exhibited in the Agora Museum. There were other burial grounds at the northern foot of Philopappos Hill, south of the Acropolis and along still surviving roads leading to the sea.

The most important remains of the Mycenaean period are on the Acropolis. The huge dimensions of the fortifications made them appear impregnable and the ancient Athenians later considered them to be the work of the superhuman Cyclops. Only small sections of the Cyclopean wall so much respected by the inhabitants of the city are extant, the most spectacular being east of the temple of Nike, from the south wing of the Propylaea to the Acropolis wall built in classical times.

After Theseus had united the city, the Acropolis became known as the polls, the Greek equivalent of the word city, while another Greek word: asty, was used to

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denote the Agora and other parts of the lower town.

At the very end of the Mycenaean period (the turn of the 12th-11th centuries BC), a large burial ground developed in the Eridanos river valley in north-west Athens in what is now the Kerameikos Excavations. The Sub-Mycenaean, Protogeometric and Geometric finds from graves excavated here represent the most important sources for the history of the city between the end of the Bronze Age and the archaic period (around 1100-700 BC). Attica was spared the devastations of the socalled Doric migration. The population of the city increased rapidly and the unification of the Attic settlements under the leadership of Athens at the end of the 8th century BC greatly contributed towards this development.

As an institution, the kingdom showed a marked decline. The king was divested of most of his powers which were transferred to nine regents (archons). The Acropolis lost its significance as a royal seat. The main organ of the aristocratic government was the Areios Pagos, a council of nobles composed of archons who had served their terms of office. The Council of the Areopagus met on the barren rocks of Ares' Hill, beside the Acropolis.

During the 11th-8th centuries BC the foundations were laid for prosperous growth and Athens flourished economically, politically and artistically. Athenian cultural supremacy in Greece is exemplified by its superb Proto-Geometric and Geometric pottery.

Excavations at the Kerameikos, at the ancient Agora and in other parts of Attica have yielded rich harvests of Protogeometric and Geometric artifacts, almost without exception found in graves. Consequently, the methods and rites of burial at that time are much better known to us than, for example, architecture and sanctuaries and daily life.

During the 8th century BC a temple to the goddess Athena Polias was built on the Acropolis. Two stone bases for wooden columns, still visible inside the foundations of the Old Temple of Athena, belonged to the 8th century temple. The territory south of the Acropolis as far as the Olympieion was the nucleus of contemporary Athens. The building materials used had a very short life. Metals were scarcely available, save for iron, which was used primarily for weapons.

During this period Athens became the religious and administrative centre of Attica.

Comparatively little information is available on the settlement pattern in Athens during the Geometric period. It may be assumed that the administrative centre was north of the Acropolis at the Agora of Theseus. Though the palace still stood - we have no information about its destruction - the Acropolis was gradually becoming a religious rather than a secular centre. Historical sources point to the Olympieion area as another religious centre. The remains of a Late Geometric building (Sacred House) with a highly intricate ground-plan were found in the Academy area. An oval enclosure which dates from the 9th century BC was found on the north slope of the Areopagus. We know from written sources that in the 8th century BC highranking families moved from the country into the city, choosing the sorroundings of Pnyx Hill and nearby Melite as a place to live, thereby beginning the development of a residential area in the city.

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