Архитектура Строительство_Ин Яз

of information is a vast store of records. Especially important is a book on architecture by the architect Vitruvius. His De Ar-chitectura (c.27 BC) is the only treatise survived from ancient times. It consists often books and covers almost every aspect on architecture.

Pervasive Roman predilection was for spatial composition -— the organization of lines, surfaces, masses, and volumes in space. In this the Romans differed from their predecessors in the ancient Mediterranean world, and, however freely they used the elements of earlier styles, in Rome or in the provinces they recast them according to their own taste.

In Roman architecture there were three types of houses: the domus, the insula, and the villa.

The domus, or town house, consisted of suites of rooms grouped around a central hall, or atrium, to which were often added further suites at the rear, grouped around a colonnaded court, or peristyle. The atrium, a rectangular room with an opening in the roof to the sky, and its adjoining rooms were peculiarly Roman elements; the peristyle was Greek or Middle Eastern. There were few windows on the street, light being obtained from the atrium or peristyle.

In Rome the chief examples of domus are the House of Vestals in the Forum in Rome and that of Livia on the Palatine Hill.

Great blocks of flats or tenements were called insulae. Excavations at Ostia, Italy, have revealed the design of these blocks. Planed on three or four floors with strict regard to economy of space, they depended on light from the exterior as well as from a central court. Independent apartments had separate entrances with direct access to the street.

The Latin word villa pertained to an estate, complete with house, grounds, and subsidiary buildings.

Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli, began about AD 123, was a sumptuous residence with parks and gardens on a large scale. The unevenness of the site necessitated large terraces and flights of steps. There are remains of great brick and concrete structures. All the buildings are Roman in style and method of construction, though with Greek names.

The Romans were great builders and engineers famous for their factories, roads, aqueducts and bridges, grand thermae and amphitheatres, theatres, and temples.

The greatest surviving circular temple of antiquity, and in many respects the most important Roman building, is the Pantheon in Rome. It consists of rotunda about 142 feet in diameter surrounded by concrete walls 20 feet thick, in which are alternate circular and rectangular niches. Light is admitted through a central opening, or oculus, about 28 feet across, at the crown of the dome. In front is a porch with an inscription commemorating an earlier building of Marcus Agrippa (12 BC—AD 14) but built with the existing rotunda (AD 120—124) under the emperor Hadrian. The rotunda and dome are among the finest examples of Roman concrete work. The interior was lined with precious marbles, the coffers (decorative recessed panels) of the dome itself once was covered externally with bronze plates.

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The largest and most important amphitheatre of Rome was the Colosseum, built by the emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian in about AD 70/75 —82. Covering six acres (2.4 hectares), it had seating for about 50,000 spectators, and its 80 entrances were so arranged that the building could be cleared quickly. The whole is built of concrete, the exterior faced with travertine and the interior with precious marbles.

Other important amphitheatres are those at Verona, Italy; Pula, Yugoslavia; and Aries, France.

Imperial thermae were more than baths. They were immense establishments of great magnificence, with facilities for every gymnastic exercise and halls in which philosophers, poets, rhetoricians, and those who wished to hear them gathered.

The best preserved are the Baths of Caracalla (begun c. AD 217), which covered an area about 1,000 feet square, and those of Diocletian (c. AD 298— 306), with accommodation for 3,200 bathers.

Vocabulary

to derive — происходить remains — (зд.) руины store — запас

treatise — трактат

pervasive — проникающий, распространяющийся повсюду predilection — предпочтение

spatial — пространственный surface — поверхность

to recast — придавать новую форму, переделывать to consist (of) — состоять (из)

rear — расположенный сзади, задний peculiarly — особенно

to obtain —- получать, приобретать

tenement — многоквартирный дом, сдаваемый в аренду excavations — раскопки

to reveal — показывать, обнаруживать with strict regard — со строгим учетом to depend (on) — зависеть (от)

access — доступ

to admit — допускать, принимать opening — отверстие

inscription — надпись concrete —- бетон precious — драгоценный marble — мрамор

establishment — учреждение magnificence — величие facility — приспособление

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accommodation — размещение

I. Choose the right sentence.

1.Pervasive Roman predilection was for spatial composition.

a)Spatial composition was seldom used by the Romans.

b)The Romans preferred spatial composition.

c)Roman architecture is characterized by the use of symmetrical composition.

2.The Latin word "villa" means a suburban house.

a)Villa is a country house.

b)It is a sumptuous residence.

c)The building is Roman in style.

3.The Pantheon is the greatest structure of antiquity.

a)The Pantheon is built of concrete.

b)The Pantheon is a circular temple.

c)The Pantheon is the masterpiece of antiquity.

II. Circle a), b), or c) to complete the sentences.

1.The domus consisted of...

a)three or four floors

b)suits of rooms grouped around a central hall

c)two or three rooms with few windows

2.Insulae were planned ...

a)to impress by their grandeur

b)around a colonnaded court

c)with strict regard to economy of space

3.Handrian's Villa at Tivoli was ...

a)a sumptuous residence with parks and gardens

b)a tenement house

c)a small country house

4.The rotunda and dome of the Pantheon are among the finest examples of...

a)the architecture of the ancient Mediterranean world

b)Roman concrete work

c)contemporary architecture

5.The Colosseum was the most important...

a)temple of antiquity

b)theatre of ancient Greece

c)amphitheatre of ancient Rome

EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE

Warming-up

1.When did Byzantine architecture develop?

2.What is the outstanding example of Byzantine architecture?

3.When did this style come to Russia?

4.What greatest Byzantine architects and artists do you know?

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5. Can you give any examples of the Byzantine style in Russia?

Read the text about the Byzantine art of building

The art characteristic of the developed Byzantine Empire can be traced back to the period just before the reign of Justinian, c. AD 500. The style had enormous influence on both the East and the West. Early Byzantine art may to some extent be regarded as Roman art transformed under influence of the East. It reached a high point in the 6th century, rose again for a short time to new heights during the 11th and 12th centuries and still survives among Greek or orthodox communities.

The dominant Byzantine art was architecture. As in Early Christian times, the two chief types of church were basilican with a long colonnaded nave covered by a wooden roof and terminating in a semicircular apse and the vaulted centralized church with its separate components gathered under a central dome. Of the latter type, the chief examples are SS Sergius and Bachus (526, Constantinople), San Vitaly (526-547, Ravenna).

The outstanding example of a basilica which combined the longitudinal qualities of the basilica with the centralized volume of the martyrion was the church of Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) in Constantinople.

Brick was the main material used for the construction of Byzantine churches. It was covered externally with plaster and internally with thin marble ladoes and mosaics above. Byzantine decoration was flat and incised in contrast to the bold modeling of western surfaces.

Byzantine architecture of the period of Hagia Sophia was markedly concerned with mathematics.

The historian Procopius wrote of the great church: "Through the harmony of its measurements it is distinguished by indescribable beauty".

By the 9th century, the Byzantine style was wide spread throughout the countries of the Near East and eastern Europe, where the Greek and Orthodox religion was followed and was beginning to appear in Russia (the Cathedral of St Sophia in Kiev).

These Byzantine churches followed the plan of a Greek cross, that is a central domed space with four short square arms (evolved c. 7th century). This form of church eventually became almost universal, focusing in the brilliantly lit central space which dissolved mystically into the dark screens and galleries in the arms of the cross.

Examples are to be seen in the small Metropolitan Cathedral in Athens and at churches in Daphni, Mistra, Salonica, and Stiris.

Vocabulary

reign — царствование

to some extent — до некоторой степени to reach — достигнуть

height — высота longitudinal — продольный holy — священный

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wisdom — мудрость plaster — штукатурка

to incise — вырезать, насекать, гравировать bold — смелый

measurement — измерение to distinguish — отличаться to follow — следовать

lit — освещенный

to dissolve — растворяться screen — ширма, экран, щит arms of the cross — крылья креста

I. Choose the right word.

1. The Byzantine style had enormous influence on

3. ... was the main material used for the construction of churches,

c)chapel

5.Byzantine architecture of the period of Hagia Sophia is markedly concerned with ...

II. Choose the right sentence.

1.Byzantine style still survives among Greek and Orthodox communities.

a)The vaulted centralized church was typical of the Early Byzantine period.

b)The Byzantine style influenced both the East and the West.

c)The works of this style can be seen in Greek or Orthodox communities.

2.Hagia Sophia is the supreme example of the centralized type.

a)The Church of Holy Wisdom is the finest model of the circular type.

b)Hagia Sophia was built by Justinian.

c)The early Byzantine architecture is characterized by wide diversity.

3.The Byzantine churches were covered internally with thin marble ladoes and mosaics above.

a)Brick Byzantine churches were covered externally with plaster.

b)Sheets of marble and mosaics were used for the decoration of the interior walls and arches.

c)The decoration of western surfaces was bold and ponderous.

4.The Byzantine style influenced greatly the architecture of Russia.

a)Symbolism had now begun to dominate church architecture.

b)This form of church eventually became almost universal.

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c) Numerous churches in the Byzantine style were built in Russia. 5.These Byzantine churches followed the plan of a Greek cross.

a)These Byzantine churches were widespread in the countries of the Near East and eastern Europe.

b)These Byzantine churches featured a central domed space with four short square arms.

c)Each Byzantine church was conceived as a microcosm of all earth and

sky.

Read the text and describe the plan of the church and its interior.

HAGIA SOPHIA OR THE CHURCH OF HOLY WISDOM

Though Justinian's domed basilicas are the models from which Byzantine architecture developed, Hagia Sophia remained unique, and no attempt was thereafter made by Byzantine builders to emulate it. In plan it is almost square, but looked at from within, it appears to be rectangular, for there is a great semidome at east and west above that prolongs the effect of the roof, while on the ground there are three aisles, separated by columns with galleries above. At either end, however, great piers rise up through the galleries to support the dome. Above the galleries are curtain walls (non-load-bearing exterior walls) at either side, pierced by windows, and there are more windows at the base of the dome. The columns are of finest marble, selected for their colour and variety, while the lower parts of the walls are covered with marble slabs. Like the elaborately carved cornices and capitals, these survive, but the rest of the original decoration, including most of the mosaics that adorned the upper parts of the walls and the roof, have perished.

Vocabulary

attempt — попытка

to emulate — стремиться превзойти aisle — боковой неф храма

pier — устой, столб, контрфорс non-load-bearing — не несущие нагрузку to pierce — пронзать

slab — плита

to perish — погибать

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Read the text and tell about the subdivisions of Romanesque architecture and its main features.

ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

The generic term Romanesque is sometimes applied to embrace all the styles of architecture which, in most European countries, followed the Early Christian style and preceded the introduction of the Gothic style, c. 1200. It is often subdivided into pre-Romanesque, which includes the Lombardic, Carolingian, and Ottonian or Rhenish styles as well as Saxon and Romanesque proper, which is taken to have begun c. AD 1000.

From the ancient Roman tradition, the pre-Romanesque architects adopted characteristic features: the semicircular arch, the groined cross vault, and a modified and simplified form of the Corinthian column with its capital of acanthus leaves. Occasionally, at an early period, they used carved fragments of antique buildings. They made important advances upon Roman structural methods in balancing the thrust of heavy vaults and domes by means of buttresses, and in substituting thinner webs supported on the curved stone ribs for the thick vaults used by the Romans.

The Romanesque period lasted two centuries, and was the great age of European monasticism.

The architectural work of the Romanesque period therefor consists almost exclusively on monasteries, cathedrals, parish churches, and castles. Very few domestic buildings have survived.

The greatest examples of this style are Benedictine abbey church at Jumieges, Normandy (1036—1066); S. Ambrogio, Milan, Italy, 1140; Sompting church in Succex, 11th century; Augsburg Cathedral, Germany.

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LANCET ARCHITECTURE

Warming-up

1.When did the Gothic style develop?

2.Why is this style called Gothic?

3.In what countries did the Gothic style flourish?

4.What are the greatest works of the Gothic style?

5.What are the main features of the Gothic style?

Read the text and tell about the phases of English Gothic.

GOTHIC CATHEDRALS

The architecture of the central Middle Ages was termed Gothic during the Renaissance because of its association with the barbarian north. Now this term is used to describe the important international style in most countries of Europe from the early 12th century to the advent of the Renaissance in the 15th century.

At the technical level Gothic architecture is characterized by the ribbed vault, the pointed arch, and the flying buttress.

One of the earliest buildings in which these techniques were introduced in a highly sophisticated architectural plan was the abbey of Saint-Denis, Paris.

The proportions are not large, but the skills and precision with which the vaulting is managed and the subjective effect of the undulating chain windows around the perimeter have given the abbey its traditional claim to the title "first Gothic building".

It should be said that in France and Germany this style is subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Gothic.

The French middle phase is called Rayonnant, the late — Flamboyant.

In English architecture the usual divisions are Early English, Decorative, and Perpendicular.

Early English Gothic developed from c. 1180 to c.1280. The most influential building in the new fashion was the choir of Canterbury cathedral (1175—1184), which has many of the features of Laon cathedral.

The building retains a passage at clerestory level — an Anglo-Norman feature that remained standard in English architecture well into the 13th century. Both in the shape of the piers and in the multiplicity of attached colonettes, Canterbury resembles Laon. Colonettes became extremely popular with English architects, particularly because of the large supplies of purbeck marble, which gave any elevation a special coloristic character. This is obvious at Salisbury cathedral (begun 1220), but one of the richest examples of the effect is in the nave of Lincoln cathedral (begun c. 1225).

English architects for a long time retained a liking for heavy surface decoration: thus, when Rayonnant tracery designs were imported, they were combined with the existing repertoire of colonettes, attached shafts, and vault ribs. The result which could be extraordinarily dense — for instance, in the east (or Angel) choir

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(begun 1256) at Lincoln cathedral and at Exeter cathedral (begun before 1280) — has been called the English Decorated style (1280-1350).

The architectural affects achieved (notably the retrochair of Wells cathedral or the choir of St. Augustine, Bristol) were more inventive generally than those of contemporary continental buildings.

English Gothic came to an end with the final flowering of the Perpendicular style (c. 1350—1550). It was characterized by vertical emphasis in structure and by elaborate fan vaults.

The first major surviving statement of Perpendicular style is probably the choir of Gloucester cathedral (begun soon after 1330). Other major monuments were St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster (begun 1292 but now mostly destroyed) and York Minster nave (begun 1291), St. George's Chapel, Windsor, King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1444), the naves of Winchester (c. 1480), and Canterbury (c. 1400), the Chapel of Henry VII at Westminster Abbey.

Gothic was essentially the style of the Catholic countries of Europe. It was also carried to Cyprus, Malta, Syria, and Palestine by the Crusaders and their successors in the Mediterranean. The forms that were developed within the style on a regional basis were often of great beauty and complexity. They were used for all secular buildings, as well as for cathedrals, churches, and monasteries.

By the Gothic Survival is meant the survival of Gothic forms, particularly in provincial traditional building.

It developed after the advent of the Renaissance and into the 17th century. It should be differed from the Gothic Revival (Neo-Gothic) in the 18th — the 19th centuries.

Vocabulary advent — приход, прибытие

rib — ребро arch — арка

pointed arch — стрельчатая (остроконечная) арка buttress — контрфорс

flying buttress — аркбутан, арочный контрфорс sophisticated — изощренный

abbey — аббатство skill — мастерство precision — точность' undulating — волнистый

claim — требование; претензия; притязание; утверждение; заявление Rayonnant — лучистый (стиль)

Flamboyant — «пламенеющий» (стиль) choir — место хора в соборе

to retain — удерживать; поддерживать; сохранять

clerestory — верхний ряд окон, освещающий центр высокого помещения

to attach — прикреплять; присоединять

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tracery — ажурная каменная работа; рисунок, узор; переплетение shaft — ствол

dense — густой, плотный chapel — часовня

secular — светский, мирской

I. Complete the sentences.

1.At the technical level the Gothic style is characterized by the ribbed vault, the flying buttress, and ...

a)the round arch

b)the bulbous dome

c)the pointed arch

2.The title the "first Gothic building" is given to ...

a)the abbey of Saint-Denis

b)Westminster abbey

c)King's College Chapel

3.In English architecture the usual subdivisians are Early English, Decorated and

... styles.

a)Carolingian

b)Flamboyant

c)Perpendicular

4.English architects for a long time retained a liking for ...

a)plain surfaces

b)heavy surface decoration

c)curved surfaces

5.Gothic was essentially the style of... countries.

a)the Buddhist

b)the Orthodox

c)the Catholic

II. Choose the right sentence.

1.The Gothic style developed in most countries of Europe.

a)The Gothic style was associated with the barbarian north.

b)Gothic is represented in many European countries.

c)Paris — for much of this period the home of a powerful and artistically enlightened court — played an especially important role in the history of Gothic art.

2.Canterbury Cathedral was the most influential building in the new fashion.

a)Canterbury Cathedral was the most important structure of the Early English Gothic.

b)Canterbury resembles St. Paul's Cathedral.

c)Canterbury Cathedral was built in the 12th century.

3.English architects retained a liking for heavy surface decoration.

a)English architects preferred restrained decoration.

b)The stained glass of the period was heavily coloured.

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