Архитектура Строительство_Ин Яз
.pdfobligations to Neoclassical buildings and also covers certain aspects of environmental protection.
Unfortunately the lack of an effective master plan for the development of Athens hinders the progress of archaeological research and the adaptation of the city to modern requirements. The situation has become particularly critical in the centre.
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Berlin
This book deals with the capitals of the European countries of today and so this chapter confines itself to a description of Berlin, the Capital of the German Democratic Republic. Berlin lies along the ancient glacial spillway of the River Spree, and after Magdeburg is the second largest inland port. Its average altitude is 36 metres, and its geographical position is latitude 520 18' north and longitude 13° 15' east. The city his an area of 403 sq.km., and had 3,289,500 inhabitants at the end of 2003-6.5% of the German Democratic Republic.
There is evidence of settlement in the area as early as the Bronze Age. Slavic tribes founded villages here in the 7th century. The history of the twin cities of Berlin and Kölln begins in the early 13th century. Various assumptions have been made about their foundation. The first documentary evidence of the existence of Kölln dates from 1237, while Berlin is first mentioned in a document of 1244. Near the ford over the River Spree, where the Mühldammbrücke now stands, trading centres developed on both sides of the river, and important trade routes met in the two cities. The favourable position of Kölln and Berlin led to rapid development, and by the end of the 13th century they were already larger than other cities in the Mark of Brandenburg. The walls of Berlin enclosed 42 ha and of Kölln 23 ha. Leagues of the cities in the Mark were formed on several occasions under the leadership of Berlin, where their meetings were held. In the last quarter of the 13th century the two cities already had as many as five churches. The oldest in Berlin were the Nikolaikirche (St Nicholas's) and Marienkirche (St Mary's) followed by Klosterkirche (Abbey Church) and Heiliggeistkapelle (Chapel of the Holy Spirit). The main church in Kölln was Petrikirche (St Peter's).
In 1307 the cities of Berlin and Kölln merged and built a joint city hall by the Lange Brücke. Originally the alliance was to serve defence purposes, bet it increased Berlin's political influence, and brought economic and cultural development. Its powers included the right to mint coins and decide over life and death. Even the fires of 1376 and 1380 failed to undermine its power, although they all but reduced the building ashes. Berlin was reconstructed using new methods of timber framing, and the first houses of baked brick also appeared among the new building.
For centuries Berlin occupied an area which can be well seen today from the top of the Television Tower on Alexanderplatz. The built-up area extended to the present-day Littenstra e in the north, Alexanderplatz in the east, and Kupfergraben in the south and west, but did not include the marshy area where later the Schloß and Lustgarten - now Marx-Engels-Platz - were built.
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The sister cities preserved their independence from the Land's princes until the 15th century. However, when four of the guilds rose against the Council in 1442, the Prince-Elector had to use arms to force ain entry through the city gates. He then split the twin cties up and gave the guilds seats on the Council. From that time onward, the Prince reserved the right to confirm the appointment of magistrates. In 1443 he built a castle on the site of the Hohes Haus in Klosterstraße, in front of the city walls of Kölln, with direct access to the city. The uprising of the citizens of Berlin in 1448, which interrupted the building of the castle, was suppressed by a feudal court.
Around 1450 the city had about 6,000 inhabitants. Berlin's population growth was accelerated when the Prince-Elector transferred his seat here, and further areas of the city and its suburbs were built upon. The court nobility had certain building privileges. A large number of new dwelling houses were built in the 15th century after yet another fire had caused considerable damage in 1483. Unbaked brick and timber framing were almost entirely superseded by stone as a building material.
Prosperity in the 16th century was interrupted by the Thirty Years' War. From 1618 to 1648 the population of Berlin decreased from 12,000 to 6,000. Nevertheless, Berlin became the scene of new life: from the 15th century to the end of the 18th century it was the seat first of the Prince-Electors of Brandenburg and later of the Kings of Prussia. The stately Schloß which in its design showed Saxon influence, was built in 1535-71, under the direction of the architect Kaspar Theiss. Later several other groups of buildings rose around it, among them the Apothekenflügel (Pharmacy Wing). During the Second World War the Schloß was badly damaged and in 1950-51 it was demolished.
The mercantile economic and political system designed to serve the purposes of absolutism led to a new phase of development in the life of Berlin-Kölln. Since there were not enough local architects, many were invited from Holland.
The first building regulations were issued on November 30, 1641, and continued at least formally in force until 1853. When they were drafted they constituted a most up-to-date set of statutory provisions. The streets were gradually paved and in 1682 street lighting was introduced. To protect the capital of the province from attack, Berlin and Kölln were fortified in 1658, to plans executed under the control of Johann Gregor Memhardt, an engineer of Austrian birth educated in the Netherlands. From him originates the oldest surviving map of the two cities (1650), showing their centres. Most of the fortifications were pulled down again ten years after their completion.
Between the mid-17th century and the end of the 18th century the Age of Absolutism saw a rapid improvement of the city's appearance. The Prince systematically added new settlements: Friedrichswerder (1662), Dorotheenstadt (1674) and Friedrichstadt (1688). The uniform town houses of Dorotheenstadt and Friedrichstadt, the conversion of the Schloß according to Schlüter's designs into a huge Baroque palace (1698) and the building of the Zeughaus (Arsenal) and the mansions along the Wilhelmstraße, turned Berlin into a European metropolis.
Changes in the methods of town-house building came in the mid-17th century. Detached houses gave way to uniform terraces with the roofs forming a continuous
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line and transforming the look of the streets.
Following the example of other European courts, the Kings of Prussia—as the Prince-Electors of Brandenburg styled themselves after 1701 - endeavoured to raise grandiose buildings.
Prince Frederick III (King Frederick I) played an important role in the development of Berlin's architecture and town planning. In 1709 the King united the newly formed towns of Friedrichwerder, Dorotheenstadt and Friedrichstadt with Kölln and Berlin into a capital and royal seat which he invested with new urban rights. The population of the united city amounted to 56,000, of which 6,000 were French immigrants, 500 Swiss and 500 originally from the Palatinate. The suburbs on the northern, eastern and southern sides of Berlin were later incorporated into the capital as well.
Berlin architecture from the end of the i7th through the 18th-century showed Italian and French influences. Andreas Schlüter, a man of many talents who was appointed court sculptor in 1664, the Dutch court architect Smid, his successor Arnold Nering, and the Swedish-born court architect (from 1699) Johann Eosander von Göthe all played an important part in the creation of architectural monuments of outstanding historic value. Through the taste and authority of its architects, the court directly influenced private building in the city.
In addition to the extension of the Berlin Schloß and the building of Schloß Monbijou, other castles were built near Berlin. Charlottenburg was started by Nering in 1695 and extended by Eosander von Göthe after 1702; the same architects were responsible for the Castle at Niederschönhausen. Other outstanding buildings of the period are the Marstall (former court stable; 1665-70, M. Smid), the Zeughaus (1695-1706, Nering, Grünberg, Schluter and de Bodt), the Opera (1741-3, Knobelsdorf), Prince Henry's palace, which after 1810 was converted into a university (1748-53, Knobelsdorf and Boumann), the Königliche Bibliothek (1774-80, Fischer von Erlach and G. Ch. Unger), the Brandenburger Tor (Brandenburg Gate; 1788-1794, Langhaus and Schadow). The churches include the Dorotheenstadt Church, Parochialkirche, Sophienjarche, Hedwigkirche, Deutsche Kirche and Französische Kirche. Among the more important palaces built by the government for the nobility were the Palais Podewils and the Schwerinsches Palais, both designed by Jean de Bodt.
Deliberate town planning began in the second decade of the 18th century. The wide thoroughfare Unter den Linden, formerly bordered by shabby-looking houses, was rebuilt in an impressive manner. The development of the city's industry was favourably influenced by the arrival of Huguenots from France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. They settled in and around Berlin in large numbers and many new buildings appeared to house their businesses.
While the factories set up towards the end of the 17th century first confined themselves almost exclusively to supplying the army, the government and the court, later they gradually developed into industrial undertakings catering also to the general public. Through them the crafts of the Age of Absolutism attained higher standards that from the end of the 18th century greatly promoted the prosperity of the city's artisans. Workshops were established hi the eastern and
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northern areas of the city. By the end of the 18th century Berlin had a population of 172,000 and was the leading industrial city of Prussia.
At the same time, it was artistic development rather than systematic extension of the city that dominated town planning. From the end of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century Berlin's architecture was typified by Classicist and Neoclassical styles. This development is associated with the names of the architect K. G. Langhaus, and of G. Schadow, the sculptor mentioned above. The persistence of late Baroque can also be observed in Gontard's design of the Oranienburger Tor, (Gate), the Hamburger Tor and Rosenthaler Tor (architect: Unger). In the persons of Gentz and Carl Friedrich Schinkel a new generation of Classicist architects appeared on the scene. The municipal statutes of 1808 brought important administrative changes. The city councillors, elected from a new franchise, were granted far-reaching powers over local affairs, and in certain cases the city corporation was empowered to act on behalf of the state.
During the Napoleonic Wars building came to a standstill in Berlin. After the liberation of the city the Neue Wache (New Watchhouse; 1819-21. Schinkel marked the beginning of a period of activity. The building was to form part of an already existing complex, with the Opera and the Brandenburg Gate. Schinkel is also associated with the transition from Neo-Gothic to Classicism. From the point of view of town planning the Altes Museum and the Schauspielhaus (Theatre) were given great prominence. Schinkel found new forms worthy of ipth century architecture which transcended the bounds of Classicism. An example was his Bau-akademie (Academy of Architecture, 1832-36) destroyed in the Second World War. A fine example of surviving Classicism is the Singakademie (1825-27,) which today houses the Maxim Gorky Theatre.
During the European revolutions of 1848 Berlin also saw barricade-fighting. Though the bourgeois revolution fell, owing to the capitalist development of industry, Germany became one of the strongest industrial powers of the world. The one-time Prussian royal seat grew into the capital of the German Reich. This could be seen on the outward appearance of the town as well: it became an imperial, military centre. The inner city was characterized by the concentration of functional municipal buildings and dense population. New premises were added to the Berlin machine, electric and chemical factories, where the majority of the population was given employment. The development of infrastructural units serving industry and administration furthered modern urbanization.
The appearance of old Berlin was crowned by the creations of Schinkel. In 1861 the city's area was extended by 2,410 ha, some of the annexed areas (Neu-Moabit, Wedding, Tiergarten and Hasenheide) becoming working-class developments for those who had till then lived in extremely squalid conditions.
New types of construction enterprise also emerged as early as the mid-19th century: corporate bodies, joint stock companies and the city's own administration were especially active in commissioning new large buildings. Besides industrial, trade, credit establishments and railway construction^ several public buildings were erected. The city magistracy of Berlin built the Rotes Rathaus (Red Council Hall, 1861-9 and the Stadthaus (City Hall; 1902-11). Other public buildings of the
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period were the Nationalgalerie (National Gallery; 1867-76), the Bode Museum (1897-1904), the Pergamon Museum (1909-30), the Dom (Cathedral; 1894-1904) and the Neuer Marstall (New Stables; 1869-1902).
However, crowded, ill-lit and ill-ventilated tenements to house the steadily growing number of manual workers also became a characteristic of the Berlin townscape. During the reign of Kaiser Wilhelm, Berlin's population doubled, reading 1,578,000 in 1890. Rapid increase continued in the following two decades. By 1912 the population was 2,095,000.
The Berlin of 1918-19 was the capital of revolutions. After the fall of the House of Hohenzollern, the Weimar Republic guaranteed democracy. The city centre was characterized by the concentration of functional municipal buildings and dense population.
In 1920 eight towns, among them Charlottenburg, Wilmersdorf, Köpenick and Spandau, 59 villages and 27 large independently administered areas were merged into Greater Berlin (Einheitsgemeinde Berlin).
The territories united as Greater Berlin maintained their suburban characteristics for the following couple of decades, giving a peculiar atmosphere to the metropolis. The oldest historical town centre is situated on the territory of the GDR. 55 percent of the territory of Greater Berlin of 1920 today is part of West Berlin.
Greater Berlin was divided into 20 administrative districts. Of the former 20 districts, 8 make up die capital of the GDR today, 12 West Berlin. The population was 4 million in 1925, which made it the third largest city in the world after London and New York. Economic life continued to be concentrated here in the 20th century, especially after the First World War. This meant that 80% of German capital was concentrated here, as well as the majority of German workers. As a consequence of this economic development, Berlin also became the center of scientific and cultural life and pioneered several modern trends in town planning.
In the metropolis that had developed in the shape of concentric circles around the historical inner city, 8 almost independent city centres developed. As a result, the Bauhaus, too, was able to exert its influence in the planning of new power plants, residential districts, business and cultural centres. The simple forms and new building materials such as concrete and steel, and the development of green belts around residential districts, dissolved the rigidity of the William era. Siemensstadt and the Friedrich Ebert Siedlung were typical housing estates of the time; the Gewerkschaftshaus, Buchdruckereihaus and other tall buildings, on Alexanderplatz, all destroyed during the war, were its best achievements.
When National Socialism turned Berlin into a military centre, gigantic architectural forms began to dominate the city-scape.
During the Second World War most of the capital's historic buildings were reduced to rubble. Of its 226 bridges, 128 were destroyed. Of the 1,562,000 homes only 370,000 remained habitable.
The inner districts, among them the Mitte (Centre), which included the historic centre of the city, suffered the severest damage.
The Soviet army liberated Berlin from Nazism on May 2,1945. The city lay in
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ruins, covered by 70m cu.m. of rubble. Life gradually returned to normal. In July 1945, in line with the treaty concluded by the Allies, American, British and French troops occupied its western districts. Berlin was divided into four zones and became the headquarters of the Allied Control Commission and Allied Military Command. Thereafter Berlin became a practically independent city. (The independent status of West Berlin is governed by the four-party convention signed by the Soviet Union. Great Britain, the United States and France in 1971. On November 30, 1948, a democratic Berlin magistracy was formed under the leadership of Friedrich Ebert as Chief Bürgermeister (Mayor). On October 7, 1949, the German Democratic Republic was established with Berlin as its capital. Since 1949 there have been two cities in the former Berlin area: Berlin, the Capital of the GDR, (1,106,200 inhabitants), and West Berlin (2,004,300 inhabitants).
The reconstruction of the capital of the GDR, involving the methodical formation of an essentially new, socialist city, began under extremely adverse conditions caused by the heavy war damage and amidst great economic difficulties and political conflicts. However, nationalization of building land put an end to speculative jerry-building and created favourable conditions for achieving what was required. Top priority was given to applying modern urban building standards, so as to satisfy the needs of the working population. Special attention was devoted to the reconstruction and preservation of historic buildings. An example was the reconstruction of the architectural treasures along Unter den Linden such as the former Zeughaus (today the Museum für Deutsche Geschichte-Museum of German History), the Staatsoper, the Kommode, the Palais Unter den Linden and the University.
On August 13, 1961, by virtue of a government resolution of the Warsaw Treaty countries, the boundary between the GDR and West Berlin was placed under control along its full length. An impressive city centre based on modern townplanning principles sprang up around Alexanderplatz.
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Bern
Bern lies in the valley of the River Aare, on the Central Plain of Switzerland between the Alps and the Jura, at latitude 46°57' north and longitude 7°25' east. The central railway station is 540 m above sea level. Roads from Zurich, Biel and Neuchatel, Geneva and Lausanne, and Thun and the Bernese Alps meet at Bern, as do the railway lines between Lakes Constance and Geneva, and between northern Switzerland, Lotschberg and Italy. Bern has an administrative area of 51.5 sq.km. and a population (in 2003) of 121,900.
As an autonomous city within the Swiss Confederation, Bern has been the seat of the Federal Government, the Federal Parliament and the majority of the federal administrative institutions since 1848. At the same time it is the capital of Bern Canton and the seat of the cantonal administration, parliament and administrative offices. The city's cultural and economic significance has left its mark on its outward appearance.
There is ample evidence that the site of the present city and its surroundings was inhabited in prehistoric and ancient times by Celts (Helvetians), Romans, and Germans (Alemannians). Although the earliest remains found on the peninsula-formed by a bend in the River Aare where the Old City now standshave been Roman coins, further north on the Enge peninsula a large Celtic settlement has been excavated, along with a Roman roadside settlement and a Galio-Roman church. These settlements are believed to have lasted until the end of the 4th century.
In the immediate vicinity of the city, the remains of - Roman villas and several 7th century Germanic cemeteries have been discovered.
In the early Middle Ages a number of detached homesteads, farms and small villages existed on the site of the present city. Till AD 843 the area was part of the Frankish Empire. It then belonged to the Kingdom of Burgundy, till it was annexed to the Holy Roman Empire in 1032. In 1127 Emperor Lothair appointed Prince Conrad of Zahringen as Regent of Burgundy.
Historians differ over the date and circumstances of the city's foundation. According to the old chronicles, Prince Berthold V of Zahringen built the city between Nydegg Fortress and the Clock Tower in 1191; it is, however, more probable that Berthold IV established a fortified village between Nydegg Fortress and Kreuz-gasse around 1155-60, and that his son Berthold V extended it as far as the Clock Tower.
It may be assumed that a small open riverside settlement, probably with a ferry, developed at the midpoint of the bend in the River Aare at an early date.
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The imperial Fortress of Nydegg, built on the surmounting rocks in the nth or 12th century, was a stronghold of the Zahringers and designed to protect the ferry. Around 1160 the village extended from the hollow west of the fortress to the line of the present Kreuzgasse. Of the original town wall only one section, 28 m long and 150 cm thick, has survived. It now forms the western facade of the Town Hall, which was built in 1406. Remains excavated in 1940-42 may have belonged to the walls of the town ditch. No trace of the ancient town gate has been found so far. The nth century settlement was 270 m long and 180 m wide. Its broad main street (today's Gerechtigkeitsgasse) curves slightly to the right and rises gently towards the west. It is flanked by two parallel streets, each narrower by about a third than the main street. The area for development was divided into lots measuring 17.6 m by 29.3 m. This plot pattern has remained unchanged to this day.
Around 1191 the city was extended westwards by 350 m and both the main street and side streets were lengthened. On the western side the city was flanked by a double wall that ran along a natural ditch, with a gatehouse and a still extant clock tower. The area thus enclosed is now called Zahringerstadt.
The first written document to mention Bern by name dates from 1208. The etymology of the name Bern is still in doubt. While tradition ascribes it to the heraldic bear that features on the city crest, others claim that Bern is the German form of Verona and was used because the Zahringen princes had close family ties with the sovereigns of Verona. However, the name may as well have a Celtic or Latin origin.
The last of the Zahringers, Bcrthold V, died in 1218, when the city again became part of the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Frederick II conferred upon it important privileges, notably self-government, independent jurisdiction and the right to hold markets.
During the period that followed (1254-73), in the absence of an emperor, the city allied itself with Savoy, thus incurring the wrath of the Kyburgs and Habsburgs. With the help and patronage of monasteries, alliances with cities and communities in the valleys and the purchase and redemption of bonds, the city gradually increased its territory and influence.
Around 1256 Bern was extended westwards by a further 300 m as far as the next natural depression. 7'here a town wall with a new gate was built, where the Prison Tower now stands. This tower served as a prison until 1897, then as a storage room of the State Archives. In 1977-1979 it was converted into a cultural centre The area added to the city in 1256 is called Savoyerstadt in memory of Count Peter of Savoy, under whose protection it stood.
Around the same time Nydegg Fortress was demolished and the first wooden bridge was built where today's Untertor Bridge stands. The Nydegg site was then incorporated in the city's defence systems. In 1339 Bern won a victory near Laupen over the neighbouring city of Fribourg and the nobility allied with it. In 1353 it concluded an everlasting alliance with the founder cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, and following Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus and Zug, entered the Confederation as its eighth canton.
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A further 300 m of territory were added to the city around 1345. Its extended main axis (today's Spitalgasse) ended at the Christopher Tower, since demolished. The city grew beyond the small peninsula of the Aare, and its side-streets also increased in number.
In 1405 the city was almost completely destroyed by fire, but the wooden houses of the burgesses were soon replaced by stone houses. In 1415 the Bernese occupied Aargau, and from this time onwards the young republic concentrated its policies on the west. Its good relations with France involved it in a war with the troops of Charles the Bold, who was in league with the Habsburgs. It ended with victories for Bern at Grandson and Murtcn in 1476 and near Nancy in 1477, which enhanced the canton's significance and power in Europe.
The participation in the Italian campaign conducted by the cantons and the service of their troops in foreign armies led to a certain demoralization of the population and abuses in the Church. Therefore the ideas of Huldrych Zwingli, the Zurich reformer, attracted numerous followers, so that in 1528 the new belief became the established religion of the city. The expropriation of ecclesiastical estates added to the wealth and territory of the Bernese Republic, which reached its greatest extent after the occupation of Waadt in 1536.
During the 15th century the defences of the city were further developed. From the system of strongholds built between 1458 and 1473 a section of wall in Hodlerstrasse, near the Museum of Fine Arts, and east of this a structure known as the Blood Tower on the River Aare still remain. The Town Hall (by Heinrich von Gengenbach and Hans Hetzel) was built in 1406-17 and later rebuilt on several occasions; in 1939-42 its ground-floor hall w?s restored to its original form. The Cathedral (by Matthaus Ensinger) was begun in 1421; the frontal tower left unfinished in 1596 was completed in 1889-93; the sculptures of the main door were created by Erbardt Kiing in 1490-95. Apart from the Dominican Monastery, Antonitc House, the former church of the hospital order of the Antonites, is the only surviving monastic church in the city. Built between 1492 and 1505, it was later used as granary and a mail coach house; it was renovated and altered in 1939-40.
Nydegg Church was erected on the foundations of the Nydegg Fortress, which had been demolished in 1260-70. The chancel dates from 1341-6, the bell tower from 1480 and the main aisle from 1494-1500. The church was completely restored under the city's preservation programme in 1951-3.
Most of the fountains that still typify the city date from the 16th century, and are partly or fully attributed to the sculptor Hans Gieng. Zahringer Fountain, decorated with a statue of a bear in armour, was erected in 1535 by Hans Hiltprand.
During the Thirty Years' War the authorities built a rampart and ditch system (1622-34) in front of the town wall. A new gate, called the Obertor, now no longer extant, lay on the western side.
In 1653 the unfavourable economic consequences of the Thirty Years' War and the privileges enjoyed by the nobility at the expense of the impoverished peasantry provoked a peasant revolt that was brutally put down. The
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