Text 19. Input/output

In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world possibly a human, or another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation. I/O devices are used by a person (or other system) to communicate with a computer. For instance, a keyboard or a mouse may be an input device for a computer, while monitors and printers are considered output devices for a computer. Devices for communication between computers, such as modems and network cards, typically serve for both input and output.

Note that the designation of a device as either input or output depends on the perspective. Mouse and keyboards take as input physical movement that the human user outputs and convert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these devices is input for the computer. Similarly, printers and monitors take as input signals that a computer outputs. They then convert these signals into representations that human users can see or read. For a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving input. These interactions between computers and humans is studied in a field called human–computer interaction.

In computer architecture, the combination of the CPU and main memory (i.e. memory that the CPU can read and write to directly, with individual instructions) is considered the brain of a computer, and from that point of view any transfer of information from or to that combination, for example to or from a disk drive, is considered I/O. The CPU and its supporting circuitry provide memory-mapped I/O that is used in low-level computer programming in the implementation of device drivers. An I/O algorithm is one designed to exploit locality and perform efficiently when data reside on secondary storage, such as a disk drive.

Text 20. Where is process automation headed?

Plants don’t need more data. That may sound like a bold statement considering the process industries have placed great emphasis over the last few years on deriving more information from their plant assets with the aim of ensuring smoother and safer production.

There’s an important distinction, though, between deriving more information and deriving the right information. And to effectively meet the challenges that the next decades will bring, plants need more of the latter.

That’s because technology truly carries as much potential to create bottlenecks for today’s operators as it does to provide valuable and actionable data. Indeed, data overload, combined with the increasing shortage of skilled workers, the growing number of regulations and environmental issues, and pressing safety and security concerns, creates a perfect storm for the automation industry.

All of this has led to the current unenviable situation: fewer skilled people must respond faster, handle more-complex processes, make bigger decisions, and face greater consequences across global enterprises. To create a safer, more efficient and reliable plant, it’s therefore more critical than ever for manufacturers to begin managing the data overload and turning information into real actionable knowledge.

To that end, six key technology trends will greatly influence how plants cope with the challenges of today and how they’ll operate by the end of the next decade:

1. ubiquitous use of sensors;

2. wireless as an enabling technology;

3. development of applications that turn data into knowledge;

4. convergence of information technology (IT) and process control;

5. unification of automation layers;

6. data management beyond plant boundaries.

All these trends are well underway and will continue to undergo dramatic changes in the next few years as companies attempt to navigate tricky markets defined by unpredictable demands.