- •What is scientific method?
- •Defining the Problem
- •Reviewing the Literature
- •Formulating the Hypothesis
- •Figure 2-1 Causal Logic
- •Independent variable х
- •Collecting and Analyzing Data
- •Developing the Conclusion
- •Ideas for further research
- •M edia image
- •In Summary: Scientific Method
- •Participant Observation
- •Surveys
- •In preparing to conduct a survey, sociologists must exercise great care in the wording of questions (see Table 2-1). An effective survey question
- •Unobtrusive Measures
- •It is important to realize that research designs need not be viewed as mutually exclusive. As was
- •Ethics of research
- •Case Studies of Ethical Controversies
- •Current research
- •In order to study the lifestyle of homosexual males in tearooms, Humphreys acted as a participant observer by serving as a "lookout," warning patrons when police or other strangers ap-
- •Neutrality and Politics in Research
- •If possible, read your paper aloud. Doing so may be helpful in locating sections or phrases that do not make sense.
Ethics of research
A biochemist cannot inject a serum into a human being unless it has been thoroughly tested. To do otherwise would be both unethical and illegal. Sociologists must also abide by certain specific standards in conducting research—a code of ethics. The professional society of the discipline, the American Sociological Association, first published the Code of Professional Ethics in 1971 (most recently revised in 1984), which put forth the following basic principles:
Maintain objectivity and integrity in research.
Respect the subject's right to privacy and dignity.
Protect subjects from personal harm.
Preserve confidentiality.
Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance.
Disclose all sources of financial support.
On the surface, these principles probably seem quite clear-cut. It may be difficult to imagine how they could lead to any disagreement or controversy. However, many delicate ethical questions cannot be resolved simply by reading the six points above. For example, should a sociologist engaged in participant-observation research always protect the confidentiality of subjects? What if the subjects are members of a religious cult allegedly engaged in unethical and possibly illegal activities? In Box 2-4 (page 51), we consider this sensitive issue by examining the views of one sociologist who studied a highly controversial religious group (see also S. Heller, 1987; Shupe and Bromley, 1980a).
In an important 1984 decision, a federal district court judge held that the research notes of a social scientist should be recognized as confidential and protected under the law. Mario Brajuha, a graduate student in sociology, was working as a waiter and interviewing coworkers for a study of restaurants in the United States. After a suspicious fire took place, he agreed to testify before a grand jury but refused to provide them with his notes, insisting that he must maintain his promise of confidentiality to his interview subjects. Agreeing with Brajuha's position, Judge Jack B. Weinstein ruled: "Serious scholars are entitled to the same protection as journalists. Affording social scientists protected freedom is essential if we are to understand how our own and other societies operate" (COSSA, 1984:3).
The judge's ruling was subsequently overturned by the U.S. Court of Appeals, which held that the case needed to be retried. Eventually, the prosecutors agreed to drop the case against Brajuha if he submitted that portion of his research which he judged not to be confidential. While this case did not fully resolve a scholar's right to maintain control over research notes—or even clarify who is considered to be a researcher or a serious scholar by a court of law—there is reason to be pleased that there was some recognition of the privileged relationship between researchers and their subjects (Brajuha and Hallowell, 1986).
Case Studies of Ethical Controversies
Most sociological research uses people as sources of information—as respondents to survey questions, participants in experiments, or subjects of observation. In all cases, sociologists need to be certain that they are not invading the privacy of their subjects. Generally, this is handled by assuring those involved of anonymity and by guaranteeing that personal information disclosed will remain confidential. In his study on death in a hospital, Sudnow did not reveal the city in which the institution is found, let alone the institution's identity or the names of medical personnel. However, a study by Humphreys raised important questions about the extent to which sociologists could threaten people's right to privacy.
CHAPTER TWO ♦ METHODS OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
BOX ♦ 2-3