- •What is scientific method?
- •Defining the Problem
- •Reviewing the Literature
- •Formulating the Hypothesis
- •Figure 2-1 Causal Logic
- •Independent variable х
- •Collecting and Analyzing Data
- •Developing the Conclusion
- •Ideas for further research
- •M edia image
- •In Summary: Scientific Method
- •Participant Observation
- •Surveys
- •In preparing to conduct a survey, sociologists must exercise great care in the wording of questions (see Table 2-1). An effective survey question
- •Unobtrusive Measures
- •It is important to realize that research designs need not be viewed as mutually exclusive. As was
- •Ethics of research
- •Case Studies of Ethical Controversies
- •Current research
- •In order to study the lifestyle of homosexual males in tearooms, Humphreys acted as a participant observer by serving as a "lookout," warning patrons when police or other strangers ap-
- •Neutrality and Politics in Research
- •If possible, read your paper aloud. Doing so may be helpful in locating sections or phrases that do not make sense.
It is important to realize that research designs need not be viewed as mutually exclusive. As was
CHAPTER TWO ♦ METHODS OF
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
BOX ♦ 2-2
CURRENT RESEARCH
UNDERSTANDING TABLES AND GRAPHS
Tables allow social scientists to summarize data and make it easier for them to develop conclusions. A cross-tabulation is a type of table that illustrates the relationship between two or more characteristics. During 1987, the Gallup organization polled 1005 Americans, ages 18 and over, regarding the issue of sex discrimination by private clubs. Each was interviewed and asked: "Do you think that private clubs should or should not have the right to exclude prospective members on the basis of their sex?" There is no way that, without some type of summary, analysts in the Gallup organization could examine hundreds of individual responses and reach firm conclusions. However, through use of the cross-tabulation presented in the accompanying table, we can quickly see that women object more frequently than men to any such exclusion on the basis of gender.
Graphs, like tables, can be quite useful for sociologists. The accompanying illustration is an example of a graph known as a pictograph.
Pictographs use symbols to show the relationship between different characteristics.
The illustration here shows that in 1985 the state of Alaska spent about four times as much per pupil on elementary and secondary education as Mississippi did. However, this pictograph relies on a visual misrepresentation. Through use of two dimensions—length and width—the graph inflates the size of the expenditure level for Alaska. Although it should appear about 4 times as large as the Mississippi level, the Alaskan money bag actually appears about 16 times as large. Thus, the graph misleads readers as to the comparative spending levels of the two states.
This example underscores the fact that tables and graphs can be easily misunderstood and can even be deceptive. If you are reading a table, be sure to study carefully the title, the labels for variables, and any footnotes. If you are examining a pictograph, check to see if the visual representations seem to reflect accurately the statistics being illustrated (Fitzgerald and Cox, 1984; Huff, 1954:69).
Direct Expenditures per Student for Elementary and Secondary Education, 1985
Alaska $8728
Mississippi $2128
souRCe: Bureau of the Census, 1987b:2.
Pictographs, such as the one shown here, can be misleading. The money bag for Alaska is about four times as long as that for Mississippi, reflecting the fact that Alaska spent about four times as much state funding on direct expenditures for elementary and secondary education. However, the money bag for Alaska occupies about 16 times the area on the page. This gives readers a false impression of the two states' comparative levels of funding for education.
Attitudes on Private Clubs' Right to Exclude Members on the Basis of Gender
RESPONDENT |
|
FAVOR CLUBS' RIGHT TO EXCLUDE, PERCENT |
OPPOSE CLUBS' RIGHT TO EXCLUDE, PERCENT |
NO OPINION, PERCENT |
Men Women |
|
39 25 |
57 69 |
4 6 |
n = 1,005 source: Gallup |
Report |
|
|
|
Survey question: "Do you think that private clubs should or should not have the right to exclude prospective members on the basis of their sex?"
illustrated in the previous example, two or more methods used together may be especially informative. Moreover, researchers do not need to devise a totally new research design in all cases. The term replication refers to the repetition of a given investigation in substantially the same way it was originally conducted, either by the original scientist or by other scientists. Box 2-3 (page 50) considers the advantages of replicating earlier sociological research.