2. Classification of morphemes

Root morphemes (RM)

Due to its historical development, English has a much larger number of morphologically unmarked words, i.e. regular RM, than Ukrainian. Consequently, the number of inflexions expressing the morphological categories is much smaller in English than in Ukrainian. Moreover, a lot of notionals in English lack even the affixes which can identify their lexical and morphological nature. Free root-morphemed words, though fewer in Ukrainian, are still represented in all lexical and morphological classes as nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. of both contrasted languages. Cf.: arm, pen, boy, work, do, he, she, it, five, this, ten, here, far. Similarly in Ukrainian: ніс, лоб, чуб, ти, варт, хто, три, тут, де, він.

Free root morphemes can also be functionals: but, till, on, not, through, just, мов, геть, так, певне, може, ні, на, під, etc.

Root morphemes in English can often form part of the stem, which is also a peculiarity of present-day Ukrainian: workers, friendliness, concerning, beautiful; робітництво, безмежність, переодягнутися, переробивши, тепленько, теплесенько, etc.

Affix

An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a base morpheme such as a root or to a stem, to form a word. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed.

Affixes are divided into several types, depending on their position with reference to the root: prefixes (attached before another morpheme), suffixes (attached after another morpheme).

Affixal morphemes (AM). Classification based on parts of speech

AM in the contrasted languages are split into Derivational morphemes which are in English and Ukrainian mainly suffixes and sometimes prefixes. The number of suffixes considerably exceeds the number of prefixes. The number of suffixes in English doesn’t exceed 100.

Among the noun-indicating (60) suffixes in English are –acy,- ion, -ance, -dom, -er, -ess, -ness, -hood, - ics, -ism, -ment, -ship, -ty… (democracy, alliance, delegation, freedom, writer, falsehood, politics, feudalism, arrangement, fitness, likeness, friendship, loyalty).

In Ukrainian іменникові: вчитель, борець, робітник, глибінь, давність, гордість.

The adjective-indicating suffixes are: -able, -al, -ial, -fold, -ful, -ic, -ile, -ish, -less, -ous, -some,

-ward, -y and some others. Cf.: capable, formal, presidential, manifold, grateful, laconic, futile,

selfish, meaningless, dangerous, tiresome, eastward, happy, silly, etc.

Прикметникові: -к, -ив, -лив: близький, правдивий, примхливий.

The verb-indicating suffixes are –ate, -en, -esce, -ify, -ize. Cf. negotiate, facilitate, blacken, redden, shorten, sharpen, acquiesce, beautify, purify, demobilize, organize, realize.

Дієслівні: -ну, -ти, -юва. Куснути, зимувати, днювати.

The adverb-indicating suffixes are –ly, -wards, -ward, -ways: quickly, slowly, southward/s, sideways, etc.

Прислівникові:-но, -чі, -ки, -ма: пошепки, сидьма, сонно, вічно.

Ukrainian word-forming suffixes are more numerous and also more diverse by their nature to identify different genders of nouns (that are practically missing in English). Thus, masculine gender suffixes of nouns in Ukrainian are:

-ник, -івник, -їльник, -ч, -ік, –ець/яєць, -ар/-яр, -ир, -іст, -тель, -аль.

Медик, господарник, рахівник, керманич, кравець, хімік, прозаїк, боєць, шахтар, муляр, бригадир, діяч, збирач, окуліст, вихователь, скрипаль.

Suffixes of feminine gender are –к/а,- иц/я, -ес/а, -ух/а, -ш/а, -івн/а.

Вихователька, співанка, учениця, ткачиха, поетеса, ковалівна, моргуха, директорша, Семенівна.

The corresponding English suffixes (or, -ess, -me, -rix, -ne, -ette) identify the masculine and feminine sex and not the grammatical gender. Cf.: actor, emperor, waitress, poetess, directrix, heroine, suffragette. English nouns with the so-called suffixes do not differ functionally from other nouns which have no such suffixes. E.g.: The actor/actress sang and The bird sang.

Ukrainian gender nouns, however, always require corresponding gender forms in attributes and predicates. Молодий артист співав. Гарна артистка співала. Ранкове небо сіріло. Малі пташки співали, чорний ворон сидів, сива ворона сиділа, сіре кошеня нявкало.

Ukrainian suffixes can form nouns of the feminine gender denoting non-human beings as animals, birds, insects, as well as some class nouns, abstract and collective nouns: снігурка, перепілка, цвіркуна, парубота, рідня, боротьба, свіжина, балаканина.

Suffixes of the neuter gender are mostly used in Ukrainian to identify abstract and collective nouns and names of materials, babies, cubs, nurslings, as in the following nouns: жіноцтво, учительство, бадилля, неробство, засилля, збіжжя, клоччя, сміття, веління, терпіння, and неробство.

Apart from above-mentioned, there exist in Ukrainian large groups of evaluative diminutive and augmentative noun suffixes as зіронька, сонечко, ручище, головешка, бицюра, кабанюра and patronymic suffixes like –енко, -ук, -чук, -щук, -ець. (Бондаренко, Петрук, Поліщук, Чергинець, Литвинець, Лівшун, Мовчун).

The number of suffixes forming only diminutive nouns in Ukrainian is as many as 53, compared with 16 suffixes in English, only 4 of which are productive (gosling, girlie, booklet, daddy, granny).

The Statives denote a temporary state (physical state, state of motion or activity) of a person or non-person.

The Statives mostly have in Ukrainian the same form as adverbs or modal verbs (прикро, душно, треба, краще). These groups of suffixes pertain to English as well, but they are much less represented (about 30 stable statives): ablaze, adrift, afire, aflame, afloat, afoot, afraid, ahead, ajar, alight, alike, alive, aloof, alone, amiss, ashamed, asleep, awake, aware, awry. All of them have a special marker, prefix –a. The house was ablaze with lights. He had a face awry with pain.

Nevertheless, despite the difference in the quantity and quality of suffixes, they perform in English and Ukrainian an isomorphic (either the word-building or word-forming) function.

Form-building suffixes in English and Ukrainian, when added to the root or to the stem of a word, change the form of these words, adding some new shade to their lexical meaning. Cf.: Anny, duckling, hillock, friendship, Londoner, forty.

In Ukrainian: дитинча, лошачок, походеньки, швиденько, пліточка.

Prefixes in the contrasted languages modify the lexical meaning of the word.

In English	In Ukrainian
Nouns: co-existence, enclosure, insight, proactive	Безмір, віддаль, зав’язь, підвид, праліс, прихід, походеньки
Adjectives: anomalous, eccentric, non-standard, unable	Антивоєнний, надмірний
Statives: ablaze, asleep, alive, aware	Вголос, заміж,
Adverbs: together, tonight	По-нашому, по-німецьки
Prepositions: below, beneath, behind	Поміж, понад, якнайкраще, щонайшвидше
Conjunctions: because, unless, until	Оскільки, позаяк
Verbs: avert, adjoin, bewrap, subordinate	Вбігати, накричати, обійти, обмити, підвести, розбити, переміряти

Word-forming prefixes pertain mostly to the English language where they can form different parts of speech.

Verbs: bedew, embed, encamp, enable, denude, disable, endear, ensure, embody.

Adjectives: anti-war, non-party, post-war, pre-war, unarmed.

Statives: abroad, alike, asleep.

Adverbs: today, tomorrow, together.

Prepositions: below, behind.

Conjunctions: because, unless, until

In Ukrainian only some conjunctions, prepositions and adverbs can be formed by means of prefixes:

Вночі, вдень, по-нашому, по-новому, набік, вдруге, втретє, оскільки, внаслідок, вгору, знизу, щонайменше.

Isomorphic are also the use of two (in English) and more (in Ukrainian) prefixes before the root/stem: misrepresentation, misspell, recount.

In Ukrainian three prefixes may be used to modify the lexical meaning of a word: недовиторг, перерозподіляти, недовимолот.

Inflexional morphemes express different morphological categories. The number of genuine English inflexions today is only 14 to 16, for example: -s/es, -en, -ren (boys, oxen, children, watches). Inflexions of the comparative and the superlative degrees of qualitative adjectives and adverbs:

-er, -ier, -est, -iest (bigger, biggest, lowlier, lowliest),

The verbal inflexions –s/-es, -d/-ed, -t, -n/-en (puts, watches, learned, burnt, broken),

The inflexions of absolute possessive pronouns: -s, -e (hers, ours, mine, thine).

Apart from the genuine English inflexional morphemes there exist some foreign inflexions borrowed and used with nouns of Latin, Greek, French origin only. Latin -um / - a (datum – data, erratum - errata); -us / -i (focus- foci, terminus - termini); -a/ -ae (formula- formulae); - is / -es (thesis - theses); -ix/ - es (appendix - appendices); - ies /– ies (series - series). The few pairs of Greek inflexional oppositions in singular and in plural are the following: -is /- es (analysis – analyses, basis - bases); -on/ -a (phenomenon - phenomena); - ion/- ia (criterion - criteria).

In French borrowings only the plural forms are inflected, whereas in singular there are zero inflexions: 0 / s/x (beau – beaus/x); 0/-x (bureau - bureaux).

The number of inflexions in Ukrainian by far exceeds their number in English since every notional part of speech has a variety of inflexions. The latter express number, case and gender of nominal parts of speech and tense, aspect, person, number, voice and mood forms of verbs. E.g.: Петра, Петрові, йому, всіма, червоний, червоного, червоному, червоним, двоє, двох, двома, двом, танцюючий, танцюючого, танцюючому, танцюючим; даю, даєш, даємо, даєте, дають, даватимемо; читав, читала, читали, читатиму, читатимеш.

Because of the difference in the structural nature of the contrasted languages, their paradigms of the same notionals naturally differ; the Ukrainian paradigms are much richer than the English ones. The variety of inflexions of Ukrainian nouns is also predetermined by the existence of 4 declensions. It depends on the nouns belongings to the hard, palatelized or to the mixed stem consonant type (вода – води, учень – учні, поле - поля, лоша – лошата, миша – мишею, доня - донею).

Some morphological relations and categories in English and Ukrainian are expressed with the help of analytical means – prepositions, particles, analytical word forms (to give something to Peter, not far from the river, written with pencil); degrees of comparison. In Ukrainian the construction is less frequently used. The future tense in Ukrainian can be also expressed analytically though it is closely connected with the modal meaning of certainty (я буду на зборах).

Only analytical in form is the expression of the passive voice in English, whereas in Ukrainian the present passive has generally a synthetic form (the plant is being built, the plant was being built, the plant will have been built). In Ukrainian: завод будується, будувався, будуватиметься, збудується).

Common / isomorphic are such morphological phenomena of word-building nature as

Agglutination and Suppletivity.

• Agglutination at the morphological level represents a mechanical adding of one or more affixal morphemes in pre-position, post-position or interposition to the root morpheme.

In present-day English, which has more zero-morphemed root words than Ukrainian, there exist a larger number of words belonging to different parts of speech and formed by agglutinating prefixes.

Verbs: adhere, assure, co-exist, bedim.

Adjectives: post-war, pre-war.

Statives: afraid, alike, aloof.

Adverbs and prepositions: beside, inside, before, afterwards, unwell.

Prepositional agglutination apart from forming new parts of speech or creating some shades of lexical meaning (do, undo, overdo; lead, mislead) in Ukrainian (схід, захід, вихід, дохід, прихід) can also perform some purely grammatical functions. Thus, they can sometimes turn intransitive verbs into transitive: live – outlive, vote – outvote. In Ukrainian: жити, дожити, прожити, пережити; спати, проспати, переспати; плакати, оплакати.

In Ukrainian pre-posed affixes can change imperfective verbs into perfective (бити, збити, забити, добити, розбити; вчити, вивчити, довчити, завчити, перевчити).

Post-positive agglutination is observed in both contrasted languages, being in Ukrainian more frequent than in English. All Ukrainian verbs without exceptions are formed by mechanical adding to the root the post-positive morphemes –ти/-ть, -ся, -ки, - оньки, -тусі/туні (набити, пролити, змити, опрацювати, злитися, спатки, питоньки, купці, спатусі/ спатуні).

In English most of the infinitives are pure root-morphemed words (work, live, read, swim, warm). Single post-positive affixal morphemes are also agglutinated with compound stems of verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (backbiting, cockfighting, trustworthy, grasshopper, skyscraper).

In Ukrainian: народоволець, односелець, косоокість, однобічність, загальновизнано, мимохідь, малопереконливо, односторонньо.

Agglutination is also a productive means of compounding (especially in English): chimney-sweep, knee-deep, short-sighted, broad-minded, goose-step, present-day, nature-friendly, oil-free. Highly productive in English is agglutination with the help of prepositions: commander-in-chief, stick-in-the-mud, up-to-date.

In Ukrainian: дизель-генератор, шафа-холодильник, човг-човг, хоч-не-хоч.

Apart from outer morphemes that are agglutinated, both languages have internal interchanges or alterations.

Vowel alterations: bring – brought, know- knew, take – took.

In Ukrainian: рости – ріс, нести – ношу, гребти – гріб.

Exclusively Ukrainian are the sound alterations which appear as a result of declension: ти, тобі, тобою; ви, вам, вас, вами, ніч, ночі.

Suppletivity, as a means of grammatical expression is observed in words of all Indo-European languages. At the lexical level it helps express, both in English and Ukrainian, sex distinction: boy-girl, bull-cow, man-woman, cock – hen,

Хлопець – дівчина, чоловік – жінка, півень – курка.

Suppletivity can express different categorical meanings of notionals in English and Ukrainian:

Carry – bring, say – tell, take – give, брати – взяти, ловити – піймати.

Verb to be has more forms to express in English than in Ukrainian (am, Is, Are, Was, Were).

Common in English and Ukrainian are also almost all qualitative adjectives and adverbs:

Good-better-best, bad-worse-worst, добрий-кращий-найкращий, поганий-гірший-найгірший.

Task 1. Fill in blanks transforming the words in brackets:

1. The tailor took my _______ and said my jacket would be ready in two weeks. (measure)

2. The cakes looked delicious but Mark resisted the _______ to have one. (tempt)

3. The police were puzzled by the _______ disappearance of the jewels. (mystery)

4. Peter always looks smart although his clothes are not very _______. (fashion)

5. Brown's new novel is a considerable _______ on his last one. (improve)

6. It is very _______ whether the plan will go ahead. (doubt)

7. Despite hours of discussion, the members of the board could not reach _______. (agree)

8. Lisa is very _______ and she loves outdoor games. (energy)

9. Kate _______ broke a plate while doing the washing up. (accident)

10. Is everything included in the price or are there any _______ charges? (add)

11. The street was so _______ that Janet slipped and hurt her leg. (ice)

12. To his great _______, Jim was not selected for his country's swimming team. (disappoint)

13. Many people think that television is the cause of increasing _______ in modern society. (violent)

14. Mrs Roberts was not _______ with the hotel so she decided to complain to the manager. (satisfy)

15. Thomas improved his _______ of the world during the year he spent travelling. (know)

16. The _______ of the fire was welcome after our long journey through the snow. (warm)

17. Peter blamed his failure on his own _______. (stupid)

18. The explorers walked slowly into the forest, advancing very _______. (caution)

19. It always seems _______ to throw good food away. (waste)

20. I think Harry would make a good sports teacher, because he is so _______. (energy)

Task 2. Give opposites of the following words:

Pleasant, honest, sane, patient, legal, friendly, convenient, logical, regular, personal, polite, attractive, to dress, to pronounce, to understand.

Lecture 3, Part 1

Parts of Speech Classification. Noun as a Part of Speech. Categorical Meaning of Noun Functions in a Sentence