This handbook is intended for university students engaged in studying theoretical and practical aspects of specialized communication and translation of professional texts. It deals with the problems of translation from English into Russian and is designed to assist the students of English Department in applying their theoretical knowledge to practical work. The aim of this handbook is to focus on those areas of the English grammar and special features of English texts for specific purposes which create difficulties and problems for an average student translator.

The present handbook is divided into six sections which cover a range of specific text types widely used in the contemporary professional communication. These include:

Business Letters;
Genres of Business Newspapers;
Commercial Advertisements;
Press Releases;
Corporate and Financial Statements;
Legal Documents.

Part I of this handbook is supplied with a broad theoretical background on a number of special topics related to English professional texts. Students are provided with essential information on content, composition, stylistic and linguistic dimensions of business letters, business newspaper texts and press releases widely used in the sphere of professional communication.

The present handbook has a collection of exercises on specific problems of translation of professional texts for business, law and finance from English into Russian. Key features of the handbook are authentic texts from the Financial Times, Business Central Europe, Central European Economic Review and other professional sources, up-to-date business topics and issues, and comprehensive language and skills practice.

Section One – Business Letters

Theoretical Background

Letter-writing is an essential part of business. In spite of telephone, telex, fax and e-mail communication the writing of business letters continues. In fact, most telephoned and faxed communications have to be confirmed in writing. The term ‘business letter’ implies commercial correspondence for the most part [Skrebnev 1994:202]. Various types of business letters are used in modern business communication. The widespread varieties of business letters include commercial offers, for-your-information letters, reference letters, sales letters, sales promotional letters, business newsletters, direct mail letters, confirmation letters, collection letters, cover letters, application letters, letters of declaration, letters of guarantee, letters of intent, letters of enquiry, replies to enquiries, CEO’s letters to shareholders, complaints of late or incomplete delivery, complaints of inferior quality, etc.

Business letters are mostly short and hardly ever exceed 8-10 lines [Galperin 1981]. The letter should begin with sentences that will introduce the matter without undue delay, and polite forms to help the introduction not be too long. The letter should continue with the subject matter itself and all the necessary information or arguments connected with it, but the wording must carry the reader smoothly; jerky, over-short or disjoined sentences spoil the impression. The letter should have a suitable ending – one that is not long but makes the reader feel that his point of view is being considered. It is especially necessary when sellers are writing to buyers [for more details see Ashley 1992; King, Ann Cree 1990].

Every private undertaker involved in international transactions should be competent in writing grammatically adequate and efficient business letters in English. People doing business in Russia should be aware of the fact that English business letter writing does not involve a mere translation of Russian business letters texts into English. The thing is that English business letters have a peculiar compositional pattern compared with Russian ones and are characterized by an original layout and specific lexical and grammatical features.

English business letters are composed in accordance with certain conventions discussed at length in many publications [Galperin 1981; King, Ann Cree 1990]. As a rule, the compositional pattern of a typical business letter includes:

a). The heading which gives the address and contact details of the sender. If the letter is not written on headed paper, it is common to write your address and telephone number at the top of the page;

b) The reference line which is typed on the same line as the date, but on the left and consists of the initials of the person who signs the letter. Sometimes other initials or figures are added, according to whatever may suit the filing system of the company in question;

c). The date. There are four alternative ways of writing the date in English business letters. They are as follows:

- 6 August 1962 (in words: the sixth of August nineteen sixty-two)

- 6^th August 1962 (in words: the sixth of August nineteen sixty-two)

- August 6^th,1962 (in words: August the sixth nineteen sixty-two)

- August 6, 1962 (in words: August the sixth nineteen sixty-two).

It is recommended not to write dates in a highly abbreviated digital form since it can result in confusion. For example, the date ‘12.08.85’ is understood by everybody in Britain as August 12, 1985, while in the United States it will be interpreted as December 8, 1985. Try to avoid confusion;

d). The recipient's address. The name and address of the recipient are typed on the left. Here are some examples:

1). Mr. Rod White

General Manager

The Western Software Ltd.

260 Oxford Street London

W2 8TM

2). For the attention of Mr. Rick Johnson,

President and Chief Executive Officer,

The CIS Investment, Inc.

45 Oak Street, New York 11441

3). Attn.: Conference Coordinator

Lafferty Publications Ltd.

2 IDA Tower Road Dublin

Ireland;

e). The salutation. Below the address one should leave at least a double space and type the words ‘Dear Sirs’. This is a traditional form of salutation in English business correspondence addressed to a company rather than to some individual within the company. In the United States, the most common salutation in business letters is ‘Gentlemen’.

When writing to a certain officer within the firm, the conventional greetings are ‘Dear Sir’, ‘Dear Madam’ or occasionally ‘Dear Sir/Madam’. Salutations ‘Dear Mr. Smith’ and ‘Dear Ms. Parker’ are also quite common if the recipient is known to be a man or a woman, respectively. In recent years the form ‘Ms’ which does not point out to a marital status of the recipient is widely used. Please keep it in mind that correct salutations must include the title and the surname of the addressee only, while the forms ‘Dear Mr. John Smith’ or ‘Dear Ms. Jane Parker’ which contain the first name are not recommended by modern dictionaries [Longman Exams Dictionary 2006].

If you are not familiar with the person you are writing for, begin your letter with ‘To Whom It May Concern’. This form is widely used in reference letters and in all kinds of certificates. It should be noted that after the salutation Americans put a colon (e.g. Dear Mr. Smith:), whereas those living in Britain prefer to put a comma (e.g. Dear Mr. Smith,) [Swan 1984];

f). The body of the letter. The body of the letter is a message itself which consists of at least two paragraphs, even if the second paragraph is just a courteous speech formula.

The subject matter of a business letter is introduced by means of the abbreviation ‘Re:’ which stands for ‘Regarding’. For example:

Re: Statement for Services, or

Re: Declaration of Originality;

Re: Letter of Credit No. 1521-k.

A business letter is always written in response to another letter, piece of oral communication or with reference to a particular situation that has arisen. So your business letter can begin by referring to the previous communication, or by summarizing the purpose of the letter. There exists a list of matter-of-fact and businesslike clichés suitable for the introductory part of a formal business letter. Some good phrases for the occasion are listed below:

1. The Russian Embassy in London has advised us to get in touch with you concerning …………;

2. We saw your products at the Berlin International Fair earlier this year, and would like to know whether……..;

3. From the Bulgarian Trade Commissioner in St.-Petersburg we have learnt your address and your contact details;

4. We have seen your advertisement in the latest edition of the Central European Business Review, and would be grateful if you would let us have details of……..;

5. We refer to the recent discussions we had with Mr. Oleg Popov of the Russian Trade Delegation in Paris…………. ;

6. I am writing to inform you of some changes we have made to your schedule;

g). The closing paragraph. It contains a statement of the writer’s intentions

with regard to his or her future actions. For example: We seek to establish long-term fruitful relations with your company based on trust and mutual benefit; I would welcome an opportunity to discuss this matter personally with you at your convenience; We would appreciate your thoughts.

The recipient of the letter is also invited to contact the sender in order to obtain additional information or necessary clarifications. For example:

1). Please fax me if you have any questions;

2). Please call me if I may be of service to you;

3). If there is further information you require, do not hesitate to contact us.

These ritual speech formulas which are quite common in English business letters are termed as stylistic clichés;

h). The complimentary close or the closing salutation. The standard complimentary closing phrases seem to be ‘Yours faithfully’ and ‘Yours sincerely’;

i). The signature block. It includes the letter signer’s penned signature as well as his or her printed name and/or the title of the signer;

j). Footnote information. This is information located after everything else in the letter and indicates that there is other information the reader should be aware of. The best known example is ‘encl.’ which means ’enclosure’.

The language of English business letters is formal, concise and courteous. A neatly composed letter will certainly make a favorable impression on the reader. Good and polite business letters make good business partners.

English business letters contain a variety of standard business terms (for instance, a dealer – дилер, оптовый торговец; consumer goods – потребительские товары; a bank account – банковский счет; an export transaction – экспортная операция; a marketable product – продукт, имеющий хороший спрос на рынке, etc.). Another peculiarity of business letters is the use of words in their direct meanings specified in dictionaries. There is no room for contextual or metaphoric meanings in this sphere of communication and people involved in translating business correspondence from English to Russian should keep it in mind.

English business letters are replete with acronyms and abbreviations (for instance, Inc. – incorporated, Ltd. – limited, CEO - Chief Executive Officer, CFO – Chief Financial Officer, L/C - Letter of Credit, FOB - free on board, CIF - cost, insurance, freight, BO – a branch office, VAT – a value-added tax, V.P. – Vice President, WTO – World Trade Organization) and conventional symbols (for instance, a well-known symbol $ which stands for a US Dollar). The abbreviations are predominantly technical and professional. It should be noted that a number of acronyms and abbreviations used in English business letters are marked by homonymy [Искина 2007]. For example, in various professional contexts the abbreviation C. is used to stand for: 1). copy; 2). company; 3). cost; 4). coupon; 5). contract, while WB is the abbreviation for: 1). waybill; 2). warehouse book. The acronym AID stands for several professional organizations which include: 1). Agency for International Development; 2). American Institute of Decorators; 3). American Institute of Interior Design, to name just a few. The similar instances which are quite numerous in this sphere of business communication are listed in specialized dictionaries for business and economics.

English business letters are characterized by a nominal style. It means that complex noun phrases are more preferable than verbs in this genre of business communication. For example: If you are in need of further information do not hesitate to contact us (= If you need further information do not hesitate to contact us) – Если Вам необходима дополнительная информация, обязательно свяжитесь с нами; We are in possession of your letter of June 8, 2007 (= We have received your letter of June 8, 2007) – Мы получили ваше письмо от 8 июня 2007 года; The goods are already on the way (= The goods have been already dispatched) – Товар уже отправлен.

It is also recommended to make use of ‘a verb + a noun‘ word combinations instead of verbs (e.g. to make payment instead of to pay; to make arrangements instead of to arrange; to make a claim instead of to claim; to make a delivery instead of to deliver, to take a decision instead of to decide, etc.) [for more details see Ковзанович, Нигматуллина 2003].

Although active syntactical structures are predominantly used in English business letters, there is also a place for passive constructions in this sphere of communication. Passive structures are primarily selected when we want to talk about an action, but are not interested in saying who or what does/did it. For example: You are guaranteed one year’s free maintenance by our team of experts; Model DM68 Gasifier is practically of a new design and only a limited number of units have so far been manufactured; A specifications sheet is attached. Passives are also used in bad news letters with a view both to distance the company from the negative message and to emphasize the role of external circumstances in causing the company’s poor performance [Воскресенский 2007]. For example: Some of the challenges that faced us could not be foreseen and had to be handled as and when they arose.

In contrast to personal letters which may include direct questions formal business letters normally resort to indirect questions. For example: Our object in writing to you is to enquire whether you would be willing to appoint us as your Agents for the sale of compressors, pumps and blowers in China; We would like to ask for your suggestions for institutions in your country to include in the third edition.

It is interesting to note that the style of written business communication has dramatically changed in the past two decades due to the computer revolution which gave rise to e-mail business communications. E-mail letters or messages are now easily used in external business communications, for example, between a supplier and one of his customers. On the other hand, the said electronic genre is particularly common in internal corporate communications as part of the Intranet system. For example, e-mail messages are often written by a staff member to his or her colleague within the same company to obtain or exchange information about some related business topic.

Since e-mails are sent by a software package, they automatically follow a number of formatting conventions, such as the sender’s name and e-mail address, the day when the e-mail was sent and a topic line. E-mail messages have a very straightforward structure and include three essential parts: 1). Context in subject line; 2). Extra information – if necessary; 3). Request for information or action.

As a rule, e-mail messages are much less formal than official business letters. Staff members employed by the same business organization have a way to use first names only at the beginning of an e-mail message without adding Dear as a salutation. In the same way, e-mails often end in an informal way, e.g. Regards and they almost never use formal complimentary phrases like Yours sincerely.

Some other linguistic dimensions of e-mails include:

frequent short clauses (e.g. Please send me your comments asap on the documents);
the ellipsis of the subjects which are evident from the context (e.g. See you instead of I’ll see you);
a wide occurrence of imperatives since e-mail messages mainly concentrate on some shared activities (e.g. Please tell me; Please advise; Tell me the time);
a high frequency of first and second person pronouns since e-mails are interactive (e.g. I, we, you).

Business people often have to answer large numbers of e-mail messages, so they have to be written very quickly without very much time available for editing the text. For this reason, e-mail business messages abound in abbreviations (e.g. asap – as soon as possible; e.g. – for example; info – information; msg – a message; pls – please; thns – thanks, etc.) and contracted verbal forms. Many companies recommend that their staff do not use capital letters in their e-mail communications as this can be misinterpreted as impolite, and as if the sender of the e-mail message is shouting.

E-mail business messages can be rated by a degree of formality which depends on the type of message a sender is writing and who he/she is writing to. E-mails used in external business communications are usually longer and tend to be more like standard business letters, while internal electronic messages are far less formal and may violate formal grammar and punctuation rules [for more details see Mulholland 1999]. On the other hand, an internal e-mail written by a line manager to the CEO of the company will probably be more formal than an e-mail to an old customer or a colleague [Chapman 2007].

A typical e-mail business message is given below:

FROM: J JANSEN 09-03-02 16:28:56

NEDCO DEN BOSCH

INTERNAL ADDRESS: DB 99-36 TEL. 8261

TO: J SMITH

SUBJECT: Comments on AB document

John

Please send me your comments asap on the documents. I’d like to finalize them this week.

Regards,

Jan Jansen

Nedco Den Bosch

DB 99-36 TEL. 8261

Letters are the most common form of intercultural business communication. Different cultures have, due to historical or cultural reasons, different text types at their disposal that do not always correspond to an equivalent in the other culture and language. But even if the same text type exists in two linguistic communities, there may be a considerable cross-cultural variation concerning the layout, the text structure, set phrases, argumentation strategies, degrees of directness and politeness, etc. In other words, differences in the selection of communicative and discursive strategies employed by the writer in order to achieve specific rhetorical objectives can be accounted for by culture-specific considerations.

As a particular text type business letters vary significantly along cultures in a number of ways with regard to layout peculiarities, used salutations, textual realizations of the writer’s communicative intention, amount of personal details, lexical and grammatical features, etc. To begin with, a layout of business letter texts may be culture-driven. For example, the formal organization of French and German business letters is quite different. In German letters, the recipient’s address and the sender’s signature are placed on the left side, while in French business letter correspondence they are typically found on the right side. German letters follow the American principle not to indent the first line of each new paragraph (a full-block letter format), while business letters produced by French companies are characterized by the indent of the first line (an indented letter format) [De Vries 1997].

Recent studies show that a discursive pattern and a lexico-grammatical design of business letter texts also appear to be culture-specific. In her analysis of Italian and non-Italian CEO’s letters G. Garzone observes that the Italian-based corpus is marked by more impersonal company references and less first person plural pronouns referring directly to the sender of the message [Garzone 2004]. B. Sims and S. Guirce tried to identify the differences between business letters from native and non-native speakers of English and came to the conclusion in their comparative research that letters of non-native MA and PhD candidates from Europe, Asia and the Middle East provided more personal and unnecessary professional details than letters produced by the American native candidates [Sims, Guirce 1992].

It is common knowledge that north-west Europeans and Americans show a preference for straightforward and sincere dialogue in business letters when a speaker formulates his or her goals, intentions and wishes explicitly both in non-problem and problem business situations. On the opposite, business letters from Japanese speakers of English may engage in long conversation rituals as a precursor to business particulars and ask personal questions about family before discussing business. Business letters are written by the Japanese companies in an implicit manner and this manner of communication can serve a variety of purposes. In particular, implicit statements can help the reader save face or avoid shame which is especially important in high-context cultures. Therefore, it is essential for people dealing with the Japanese to know how to properly decode messages sent by Japanese partners because the failure ‘to read between the lines’ can easily destroy a potentially successful business relationship.

The letters from Latin America are also marked by some culture-specific features. They are much longer, because local companies use wider margins. When you communicate with a counterpart from Latin America please avoid first names on initial and early contacts and use at least some of the reader’s language (e.g., senor, senora) to show interest in the reader’s language and country. The standard thing in Latin American correspondence is that the official surname of your counterpart should be accompanied by his or her mother’s maiden surname (Juan Antonio Perez Marcela; Maria Patricia Sanchez Rodolfo) [Conaway, Wardrope 2004]. Latin American business letters are a good example of personal-contextual communication style where not everything is formulated explicitly because much must be deducted from the context. When Latin American non-native speakers of English are in a situation to use English for communicating with their foreign partners they tend to interact in accordance with the socio-cultural norms which govern the use of their first language. In other words, culture-specific considerations account for the differences in strategic choices made to achieve rhetorical objectives of the business letter texts. This is a general tendency for all non-native speakers of English.

A careful study of societal norms and communication practices of different linguistic communities will prepare people involved in business communications for productive and enjoyable international business outcome [Тер-Минасова 2007].

Foreword	4
Section One: Business Letters	5
Section Two: Genres of Business Newspapers	37
Section Three: Press Releases	63
List of References and Recommended Literature	69

Contents

Foreword

Section One – Business Letters