Are: you ready?

Sit back in your chair and put your feet slightly apart on the floor. Put your hands in your lap, one on the top of the other with the palms upwards. Close your eyes. Keep your mouth closed and take a deep breath through your nose. Take another deep breath. Now, tense the muscles in your left leg by pressing your left foot, as hard as you can the floor. Now, relax it. Now, press your right foot on the floor. Now, relax it. Now, lift up your left hand and squeeze your fingers into your palm. Now relax left hand. Now do the same with your right hand. And then relax it. Lift your shoulders as high as you can -now let them fall. Turn your head slowly to the left - now and turn it to the right. And now bring it to the centre again

. Once more, take a deep breath. When you breathe out, make it last twice as long as when you breathe in. Now take another deep breath. And now, another deep breath. Now listen to your breathing. Try to think only about your breathing. If you begin to think of anything else, remember to think once more about your breath.

Remember to take care of your back now!

All of us get backache sometimes. Usually it's because too much strain has been put on the backbone making it bend out of its normal shape. So it's not unusual for all of us to get backache as a result of a long car or plane journey, during which we may be forced to sit for long periods with our back in an unnatural and uncomfortable position. However all sorts of activities put a strain on our back in everyday life and we do not think about them until our back causes us trouble. Then it may be too late. So, how do we stop back trouble from starting? Our posture , or the way we hold our body, is the most important, and this means making sure our backbone or spine keeps its natural shape. Keep your head up and your shoulders straight with the lower part of your back hollow or curved inwards. In this way you keep the natural shape of your spine.

The way you stand is also important.

If you stand with you weight on one leg you will twist the backbone, so make sure you rest your weight equally on both feet when you are standing for a long time. The way we bend is also important. Most of us bend at the waist rather than the knees without thinking about it. When we do this we curve our back and this is not good for us. If you don't bend properly you put a lot of extra pressure on your back when you lift heavy things. The correct way to lift something is to bend the knees, and allow the legs to do as much of the work as possible. Heavy weights are bad for your back so if you are very fat there is only one way to avoid back trouble, and that is to lose weight

Finally, fashion shoes may cause a bad posture by making it difficult for us to walk and stand.

In general, then, we should always think about what is happening to our back.

Ex.3 Fill in the gaps with sentences given below.

History of chocolate

Healthy calories

To understand why an exhibition on the history of chocolate is being held in the unlikely venue of the Chelse Physic Garden in London, you need to bear in mind the 17th-century approach to medicine. It was almost the reverse of current practice. Today vast sums are poured into formulating treatments for old and new diseases. Three hundred years ago, as European explorers came back from distant lands bearing fragrant and exotic substances, the aim of medical entrepreneurs was to identify ailments for which these strange imports could plausibly be touted as a cure.

When the brown chocolate bean was introduced into Britain from Mexico and the American colonies it was at tint made into a drink, with supposed - if ill-defined -medical qualities. The self-indulgent chocolate bar came later; the after-dinner mint later still.

[ 1 ] Sloane was a towering figure in Georgian London, a driving force behind the establishment of the British Museum as well as a landowner whose name lives on in some of the capital's most fashionable streets and squares. Less appreciated is his contribution to the development of a national addiction: the average Briton chomps through 8kg (nearly 181b) of chocolate a year, consumption exceeded only by the Swiss.

In 1687 young Sloane sailed to Jamaica to become physician to the colonial governor, and noticed that the local women administered chocolate to their sick children. [ 2 ]

Like other mysteriously alluring substances, chocolate has from time to time been regarded as an aphrodisiac. Montezurna, the early 16th-century Aztec ruler, was reputed to consume up to 50 cups a day before repairing to his harem. His conqueror, Hernando Cortes, asserted in 1528 that a single cup enabled a warrior to go all day without food.

Casanova was said to find chocolate more effective for his purposes than champagne; and cheaper to boot. [ 3 ] In Britain, though, it is often taken as a soothing bedtime drink, an aid to slumber rather than seduction – suggesting that its effects may be as much imagined as real. A prolific 17th-century letter-writer, Madame de Sevigne, complai­ned that it once provoked a 16-hour attack of colic and constipation, but she learned to love it in the end.

Today, when almost every pleasure is identified as addictive, a name has been coined for those unfortunates who cannot get enough of the stuff: chocoholics. [ 4 ]

Not everybody's metabolism is so benign. Because of its fat and sugar content, chocolate is usually an enemy of slender elegance. Hence the guilt invariably associated with the dark, melting temptress - and hence the ambivalent title of the exhibition that runs at the Chelsea Physic Garden until September 7th: "Vice or Virtue?"

A Brillat-Savarin, a 19th-century gourmet, also recom­mended it as a stimulant.

B Returning to London two years later, he experimented with his milk recipe and, having perfected it, sold it to a Soho grocer, whose successors sold it on to Cadbury's.

C One victim of the condition may have been Katherine Hepburn, who boasted of eating a pound of chocolates a day but kept her sylph-like figure to her death.

D A second link with the Chelsea garden is that Sir Hans Sloane, its chief early benefactor, was a pioneer chocolate fancier, credited with dreaming up the idea of mixing the powdered bean with milk.

Ex.4 Quiz See how easily and quickly you can find the missing names in the sentences below. The answers are printed after the exercise to help you.

1. William F. Cody (1846-1917) was nicknamed….

2. Mozart’s Christian names were…

3. Queen Elizabeth’s youngest son is called….

4. The Idle wild Airport in New York was renamed…after this man’s death.

5. …’s real name is Richard Starkey.

6. A Swedish actress by the name of Greta Gustafson adopted the screen pseudonym of …

7. Bach’s initials, J/S., stand for…

8. Mrs. Mark Phillips’ maiden name was…

9. The newest airport in Paris is named after….

10. Most Englishmen have pretended at some time in their life to be William Younger, alias…

11. Samuel Clemens’ pen-name was…

12. The stretch of coastland between Toulon in France and Spezia in Italy is known as…

13. The tallest building in Paris takes its name from the engineer…

14. Someone christened Adolph Schickelgruber became world-famous under the name of…

15. the film recognized as the first “taking picture” was entitled…

16. During the seventies a certain Cassius Clay changed his name to….

Answers.

1. Buffalo Bill . 2. Wolfgang Amadeus. 3. Prince Edward. 4. Kennedy International Airport. 5. Ringo Starr. 6. Greta Garbo. 7. Johann Sebastian. 8. Princess Anne (Windsor). 9. Charles de Gaulle. 10. Billy the Kid. 11. Mark Twain. 12. The Riviera. 13. (Alexandre Gustave) Eiffel. 14. Adolf Hitler-the best known false name in the world? 15. The Jazz Singer. 16. Mohammed Ali.

Ex.5 Brain teaser.

Try this little brain-teaser when you have five or ten minutes to spare. Alternatively, just note the names we give to the various members of our family. Each of the fourteen people below is married to one of the others. From the information you are given, find out who is married to whom. Note there are three generations here.

Alan is Caroline’s nephew and Larry’s cousin.

Barbara is Larry’s mother and Maggie’s sister-in-law.

Caroline is Edward’s daughter and Maggie’s sister-in-low.

David is Gordon’s brother-in-low and Alan’s uncle.

Edward is Ingrid’s grandfather and Maggie’s father-in-low.

Fanny is Caroline’s mother and Alan’s grandmother.

Gordon is Helen’s son-in-low and Nigel’s brother-in-low.

Helen is Barbara’s mother-in-low and Larry’s grandmother.

Ingrid is Gordon’s niece and David’s daughter-in-low.

John is David’s father and Gordon’s father-in-low.

Karen is Gordon’s daughter-in-low and Maggie’s daughter-in-low.

Larry is John’s grandson and David’s son.

Maggie is Larry’s aunt and Fanny’s daughter-in-low.

Nigel is Ingrid’s father and Fanny’s son-in-low.

Answer

The married couples are: Ingrid and Larry; Edward and Fanny; Helen and John; Alan and Karen;

Gordon and Maggie; David and Barbara; Caroline and Nigel.

Самостійна робота № 10

Текст.Protection of water.

Лексико-граматичні основи перекладу та вправи: Спосіб змістовного розвитку і цілісного перетворення при перекладі

Ex. 1 Read the theoretical material and fulfill some exercises.

Спосіб змістовного розвитку і цілісного перетворення при перекладі.

Спосіб змістовного розвитку містить в собі заміну словникової відповідності при перекладі контекстовою.

Якщо врахувати, що всі частини мови діляться на три категорії: предмети, процеси та ознаки, то при перекладі можна простежити зміни всередині кожної категорії і між різними категоріями. Для передачі змісту на іншу мову часто не має значення, якою формою слова передано цей зміст. Предмет може бути замінено його ознакою, процес – предметом, ознаку – предметом і т.д.

Отже, сутність цього прийому міститься в більш поглибленому толкуванні тієї або іншої лексичної одиниці або словосполучення. Необхідно уточнювати зміст, знаходити більш конкретне і стилістично підходяще рішення.

Among these factors is pressure.

Якщо буквально перекласти на українську мову, то:

Серед цих факторів є тиск.

Але в такому варіанті це речення не має чіткості, і після уточнення змісту речення його можна перекласти:

В число цих факторів входить тиск.

В такому поступовому уточненні змісту полягає техніка прийому змістовного розвитку.

При цілісному перетворенні мається на увазі перетворення внутрішньої форми. Як окремого звороту , так і всього речення. В такому випадку перетворення відбувається цілісно. Але це не означає, що перетворення не має логіко-семантичної основи. Так, якщо при відправленні потягу в метро говорять: „ Обережно, двері зачиняються!”, то англійською, згідно з правилами граматики, цю фразу можна було б перекласти: “ Careful! The doors are closed”. Між тим англійською говорять: Watch the doors, please. or Keep clear of the doors.

Інший приклад: Ready, steady, go!

Правильним перекладом буде: Увага, приготуватися, марш! ( Сигнал початку змагань з бігу.) Це і буде адекватний ситуативний переклад

Ex.2 Read and define the meaning of the following words:

planet n, rational a, decade n , cascade n, territory n, compensate v, geothermal a.

Ex.3 Read and remember the following words and word-combinations:

acquire – досягати, набувати

scope – сфера, охоплення

divert – відводити, відхиляти

arid – сухий, посушливий

drilling – буріння

livestock breeding – племінне тваринництво

Ex.4 Translate the following word-combinations;

1. large, total, different, hunting, irrigated land, populated – area

2. large, useable, extensive – reserves

3. river, underground, hot, fresh, ground, geothermic – water

4. water – resources, use, consumption, supply, shortage, transport, fishery, redistribution

Ex.5 Check your knowledge the following words with the terminological dictionary:

exploitation, irrigation, treatment, reservoir, canal, natural, navigation, reserve, depletion, fishery, consume, moisture, recreation.

Ex.6 Read the text and make up the plan to this text:

Protection of water

The water and the air are the most important elements in physical and chemical processes on the surface of the earth. Resources of river, lake and underground fresh waters are distributed very unevenly on the continents.

Water use. Shortage of water in different areas of the world is due not only to uneven distribution of water resources but also to its more varied and intensive use.

The Low on Conservation of Nature states that all rivers, lakes and underground waters are to be protected from depletion and pollution as water supply resources, a source of energy and means of treatment. Rivers and lakes are also used as transport routes, fisheries, hinting areas and recreation sites.

It is obvious that the exploitation of water resources is extremely varied at the present time. It should be added that the scope of water resource exploitations growing rapidly due to population growth, fast development of industry and expansion of irrigated land area.

An enormous amount of water is used in industry. To manufacture one ton of paper, 100 m of water is required, one ton of synthetic fibers – from 2,500 to 5,00 m of water and so on. It has been estimated that industry consumes about 85 per cent of the water in cities. This leaves about 15 per cent for the daily needs of the people.

A sharp increase in water consumption on the planet may lead to a water shortage in the near future. In view of this, measures are being worked out to increase water resources and rationally exploit them.

Redistribution of water. There are two ways to redistribute river water by means of reservoirs and through canals.

Reservoirs. In recent decades, cascades of hydroelectric power plants have been built with reservoirs, the largest on the Volga, Kama, Dnieper, Angara, and Yenisei.

Reservoirs are an example of how man intervenes to a considerable extent in natural processes over large areas. Reservoirs help solve energy problems, irrigate agricultural land, improve water transport, supply large enterprises, cities and other populated areas with water fisheries and form the basis for recreation and tourist zones.

Canals are important not only for redistributing water but also as transport routes. As such they are artificial rivers built by mighty excavating machines.

Use of underground water. Supplies of underground waters are considerable, and, therefore, their rational use to compensate for moisture shortages. Unlike mineral deposits, water resources are renewed in the course of exploitation.

Geothermal (hot) waters are a kind of ground water source; the water being obtained from the earth’s interior by deep drilling. These hot waters are used to generate electricity (geothermal electric plants), heat homes and livestock breeding farms, and also in hothouses. Recently, geothermal waters have been used for breeding fish in ponds.

Ex.7 Translate and answer the following questions in writing:

1. Як можна пояснити нерівномірний розподіл водних ресурсів?

2. Які масштаби експлуатації водних ресурсів?

3. Які наслідки різкого збільшення використання води?

4. Які існують можливості використання підземної води?

Ex.8 Discuss the problem “Protection of water”, make up the dialogue using the text and your own information.

Самостійна робота № 11

Текст.Lakes.

Лексико-граматичні основи перекладу та вправи: Складання плану та написання анотації

Ex.1 Read the theoretical material and fulfill some exercises.

Анотаційний переклад

Анотаційний переклад - це вид технічного перекладу, мета якого скласти анотацію на іншій мові.

Слово" анотація" походить від латинського слова аnnotatio - нотатка. Анотація - це коротка стисла характеристика змісту і перелік основних питань книги, статті, рукопису.

Для того, щоб зробити анотаційний переклад, необхідно прочитати книгу чи статтю, скласти план, потім сформулювати основні положення, перелічити основні питання. Стиль анотаційного перекладу книги або статті відрізняється вільним перекладом, дається головна характеристика оригінала.

Анотація спеціальної статті або книги - коротка характеристика оригінала, яка висвітлює його зміст у вигляді переліку основних питань і іноді дає критичну оцінку.

З цього визначення ясно, що така анотація повинна дати читачу уявлення про характер оригінала( науково-популярна стаття, технічний опис і т.д.), про його структуру (які питання і в якій послідовності розглядаються). При складанні анотацій з друкованих робіт необхідно додержуватися окремих вимог:

1. Анотації повинні бути складені так, щоб їх зміст був доступний для засвоєння при першому читанні, в той же час повинні бути відображені всі найбільш важливі моменти першоджерела.

2. Анотації повинні бути науково грамотні, вони не повинні відображати суб'єктивних поглядів автора.

З.В текстах анотацій часто використовуються неозначено-особові займенники і пасивно-зворотні конструкції типа: "повідомляється", „описується", „викладається" і т.д.

4. Мова анотації повинна бути лаконічною, точною і в той же час простою без складних синтаксичних побудов.

5. Вживання термінології, скорочень, умовних позначок в анотаціях повинно відповідати нормам, притаманним конкретній галузі знань.

При складанні анотацій необхідно також враховувати наступне:

• Враховуючи незначний об'єм анотація повинна розкривати, а не повторювати іншими словами заголовок джерела інформації;

• Вид, а отже і об'єм анотації залежить від значущості матеріалу, що анотується, та його особливостей, а також від цільового призначення анотації, але анотацій об'ємом більш ніж 500 друкованих знаків практично не робиться.

Для структури описової анотації характерні наступні складові частини:

1. Вступна частина, яка включає назву роботи (оригінала) на українській мові, прізвище і ім'я автора, і назву статті на мові оригіналу, назву журналу або книги, місце видання і видавництво на іноземній мові, а також рік, місяць, число, номер періодичного видання, сторінки.

2. Описова частина, яка називає тему і містить перелік основних положень оригіналу або максимально стислу характеристику матеріалу.

3. Заключна частина, яка робить підсумки автора першоджерела. В цій же частині даються посилання на кількість ілюстрацій і бібліографію.

The plan for making annotation to the article

The plan for rendering the text and some expressions to be used while rendering the text.

1. The title of the article.

The article is head-lined…

The head-line of the article I have read is…

2. The author of the article; where and when the article was published.

The author of the article is…

The article is written by…

It is published in …

It is printed in…

3. The main idea of the article.

The main idea of the article is…

The article is about…

The article is devoted to…..

The article deals with…

The article touches upon…

The purpose of the article is to give the reader some information on…

The aim of the article is to provider the reader with some material on…

4. The contests of the article. Some facts, figures, names.

The author starts by telling the readers about…

The author writes (states, stresses, thinks, points out) that…

The article describes…

According to the text…

The article goes on to say that…

5. Your opinion of the article.

In conclusion…

The author comes to the conclusion that…

I fond the article interesting (important, credible, of no value, too hard to understand)….

Ex.2 Read the text, write down the unknown words, remember the theory about the annotation and make it to this text.

LAKES

Lakes are bodies of water filling depressions in the earth’s surface. They range in area from small ponds to inland seas and in depth from a few feet to 2.000 feet. Although lakes are usually continuous during their geologic life, many are temporary, becoming alternately filed and dry, owing to fluctuations in their water supply and to evaporation. Lakes are important in topography and water supply of many drainage areas. Lakes represent a natural from of storage, which usually is beneficial in regulating stream flow, although lakes of large area and shallow depth may lose a large proportion of their inflow by evaporation. Lakes are used for water supply for municipal use, power, irrigation, and navigation. Many lakes have been converted into artificial reservoirs by raising their surface by dams or by lowering and controlling their outlets. The proportion of a drainage area that maybe maintained as water surface varies widely. Lakes have a very slight range in level where their area and outlet capacity are large. Some lakes fluctuate through a wide range both within the year and over longer periods. Lakes that exist only after brief periods of inflow and soon evaporate to dryness are called playas; these are of wide occurrence in desert areas.

Swamps include lakes so shallow that aquatic vegetation grows within the lake area. Swamps also occur on sloping lands where vegetation grows rankly enough to restrict drainage. Many swamps and shallow lakes have been drained in order that the reclaimed areas may be used for agriculture. The variations in size, climatic conditions, character of origin, and uses for different lakes make it difficult to generalize in regard to their characteristics and functions. Although generally beneficial in their effects, lakes may be wasteful and land.

Lakes resulting from glacial action. The most extensive lakes resulting from glacial action, both in number and distribution, are those formed by glacial debris. Morainal material may be sufficiently imperious to retain the water of a lake and may also contain sufficient coarse material to prevent draining of the lake by erosion of outlet. In addition to lakes formed by moraines, glacial erosion may result in depressions in the rock, which become lakes. Lakes may be formed during glacial periods by the ice of the glaciers. Such lakes cease to exist with the melting of the ice. Smaller lakes may be formed by ice moving down the main stream channel and blocking the tributaries; such lakes have an outlet through or under the ice and are subject to relatively large fluctuations as their outlet conditions change.

1. What are lakes?

2. What do lakes represent?

3. What kind of lakes are called playas?

4. Why is it difficult to generelize lakes in regard to their characteristics and functions?

5. What are the ways of lakes forming?

Самостійна робота № 12

Текст.Floods.

Лексико-граматичні основи перекладу та вправи: Зміст способу компресії при перекладі. Складносурядне речення.

Ex.1 Read the theoretical material and make the exercises.

Зміст способу компресії

Слово „компресія ” походить від латинського ” compresio” – стискання. Структури речень в англійській і українській мовах різні. Цю різницю з формальної точки зору, перш за все, можна побачити в структурі речення, в порядку слів, а також в наявності різних конструкцій. В зв’язку з цим при перекладі можливі різні ( зміни ) перетворення речення. Для адекватного перекладу необхідно творчо використовувати ряд способів перекладу, а також вміння надавати їм пояснення і мотивацію.

Сутність прийому компресії при перекладі складається в більш компактному ( стислому) викладанні думки на одній мові за рахунок використання семантично більш мілких одиниць іншої мови.

Компресія тексту досягається шляхом позбавлення надмірних елементів висловлювань, особливо при так званих „ парних синонімів. Розглянемо приклад використання компресії при перекладі.

Burning or combustion is the process of uniting of fuel or combustible with oxygen in the air.

Згоряння – це процес поєднання палива з киснем, який міститься в повітрі.

В даному реченні англійські слова burning і fuel пояснюють значення термінів combustion і combustible і виражають одне й те саме поняття, тому при перекладі вони зайві.

Спосіб компресії використовують при складанні конспекту, рецензії, розширеного плану і анотації. Найбільші труднощі викликає анотування науково-технічної інформації.

Анотування потребує повного охоплення змісту тексту, відбору і узагальнення основної інформації. Сутність цього процесу міститься в тому, що завдяки „ стискання ” матеріалу першоджерела отримати основні положення і подати їх замовнику інформації в вигляді короткої довідки. При цьому відбувається процес згортання матеріалу, його зменшення відносно оригіналу.

Складносурядні речення

Складносурядне речення складається з двох або більше не підпорядкованих oдне одному речень. В англійській мові вони називаються clauses і об’єднуються в складносурядне речення за допомогою таких сполучників сурядності.

а) єднальні( copulative ): and – (і, та), as well as – (так само, як і), both ...and – (як...так і), not only....but also – (не тільки...,а й)

б) розділові( disjunctive): or (або, чи, інакше), either...or (або...або)

в) протиставні (adversative) but (але), yet (проте), still (все ж), whereas (тоді як)

а) It was a warm soft evening in spring, and there were many persons in the streets ( Gaskell)

Був теплий весняний вечір, і на вулицях було багато людей.

She did not answer him and he went to his room to change his clothes. ( Dreiser )

Вона не відповідала йому, і він пішов у свою кімнату переодягтися.

The sun had set and he turned homeward. ( Gordon )

Cонце зайшло, і він повернувся додому.

Neither his father nor his mother was like other people. (Dreiser)

Ні його батько, ні його мати не були схожі на інших людей.

б)Now you must hurry or you’ll be very late for work .( Abrahams)

Тепер ти мусиш поспішати, інакше запізнишся на роботу.

Put a warm coat on or you will catch cold.

Одягни тепле пальто, а то застудишся.

I must go or I’ll be late.

Я мушу йти, а то я запізнюся.

в) I came here earlier but you weren’t in. ( Maugham)

Я приходив сюди і раніше, але вас не було вдома.

They waited some time for her, but she did not come down again. ( Wilde)

Вони чекали її деякий час, але вона більше не прийшла.

Складносурядні речення можуть також бути безсполучниковими.

The moon went down; the stars grew pale; the sun rose. ( Dreiser)

Місяць сховався, згасли зорі, сходило сонце.

Ex.2 Find the compound (складносурядні) sentences in the text “Radio electronics in space» and make annotation to this text:

Radio electronics in space

The formula “radio + electronics = radio electronics “ provides us with a good example of fruitful cooperation. To work successfully in any field of science now means to know the fundamentals of radio electronics. A physician has to know the properties of high frequency currents, a mathematician – the properties of fast-acting computers, an astronomer – the properties of radio telescopes, a physicist – the properties of charged particles. Without radio electronics it is impossible to develop cybernetics, astronautics and nuclear physics. Much attention is now given to the frequency stability of generators – the heat of all radio transmitting systems. To establish reliable contact with Mars, the frequency control must be within billionths of a per cent. The role of “ electrical pendulum “ which sets the frequency of oscillations in highly stable generators is performed by a plate of crystalline, quartz. Like the string of a musical instrument, this plate can be tuned to a definite frequency. The thinner the plate, the higher the frequency is. The thinnest plates give a frequency of scores of mcps ( millions of oscillations per second ). The super high frequencies used in cosmic communication are of hundreds and thousands of mcps. To use special multipliers means to active such frequencies. Ordinarily it is a chain of valve or transistor stages, each containing a score of parts. This increases the size of equipment, requires more power and results in reduced reliability. To solve the problem of high frequencies another way out has been found. The oscillations of quartz may be induced not on the main frequency, but on its harmonic overtones. One of the biggest problems is to “ tame” overtones in transistor generators, that is where they are most necessary. The frequency “ ceiling” for them is usually 100 mcps. The generator used, for instance, in the instrumentation of the US artificial Earth satellites “ Vanguard “ and “ Explorer “, had a frequency of 108 mcps ( millions of cycles –мегагерц = 10 гц – per second ).

Ex.3 Read, translate the text, write out unknown words and memorize the following words:

average – середній

magnitude – величина

thaw – розтавання, відлига

disastrous – погибельний

residue – осадок

attenuation – ослаблення

multitude – чисельність

FLOODS

A flood, is a relatively high flow as measured by either gage height or discharge rate. Gage readings indicate levels of the water surface at measuring stations. Whenever the stream channel in an average-section is overtaxed, causing overflow of adjacent land definitely outside the usual channel boundaries, the stream is said to have reached flood stage. Relative magnitudes of flood peaks may be expressed in various terms, including either height above low water, height above flood stage, or the corresponding rate of discharge. Furthermore, any flow of sufficient volume or duration to impede traffic across an arroyo or other intermittent drainage channel may locally be called a flood, even though the yield per square mile of drainage area may be comparable, to low or average flows in humid regions.

Flood flows are normally the direct or indirect result of precipitation, even though the runoff may be delayed or modified by the processes of freezing and thawing, surface inequalities or indentation, interception on vegetal cover or through infiltration, underground flow, and temporary storage in or release from reservoirs through either natural or artificial means of detention and regulation. Owing to differences resulting from variations in initial soil moisture and the effect of land use, tillage, vegetal cover, and leaf mold or forest lifter, and owing to differences in geologic structure, a given rainfall may produce only a moderate rise in the streams of on area and flood conditions in those of another area; and owing to the varying moisture content of the soil the same amount of rainfall on a given area may produce a greater rise in the stream at one time than at another. Moreover, a gentle rainfall extending over several hours or days may result in only slight increase of stream flow, whereas the same amount of precipitation in a few minutes or hours may produce high flood crests of brief duration. For example, during the disastrous flood on Monument Creek at Colorado Springs, Colo, in May 1935 the total volume discharged was only 10.000 acre-feet, but most of the water passed through the city in the course of 2 hours, in a channel that is normally dry most of the year, and would have carried the entire volume in 20 hours with no appreciable damage. Obviously the torrential character of the runoff reflected both the steep slopes of the drainage system and the intensity of precipitation within most of the storm area, which ranged from 1 to 3 inches per hour throughout the 5- hour period of storm. Apparently the flood discharge at times was at least 1 inch per hour or nearly 1 cubic foot per second from each acre covered by the intense storm.

The runoff characteristics of a drainage basin – its extremes of discharge, the duration, volume, and frequency of floods of given types and magnitudes - may be largely determined through analysis of adequate records of stream flow within the basin, or within other basins of demonstrated similarity in principal factors influencing runoff behavior, with due regard to the interrelations of these factors. In the final analysis, the composition, texture, and surface conditions of the soil, including the type and density of vegetal cover, antecedent moisture, and geologic structure, determine the rate of infiltration, the available storage capacity, and consequently the proportion of rainfall residue appearing as surface runoff.

Ex.4 Answer the questions in writing:

1.What is a flood?

2. What may locally be called a flood ?

3. What is the direct or indirect result of precipitation?

4. What are the runoff characteristics of a drainage basin?

Самостійна робота № 13

Текст. Antarctica.

Лексико-граматичні основи перекладу та вправи: Переклад газетної статті. Складання плану та написання анотації

Ex.1 Read the text, write down the unknown words, remember the theory about the annotation and make it to this text.

ANTARCTICA

The riches of the cold continent

Antarctica is the continent surrounding the South Pole. It has an area of over 15 mln sq. km, about the size of the USA and Mex­ico put together. With an average temper­ature at the South Pole of - 50 °C, it is the coldest continent; it is so cold that a thick sheet of ice always lies over the land. Pack ice surrounds the shore of Antarctica and cliffs of ice form the coast; the mountain ranges which lie along the shore and is­land are always covered with snow. In fact, Antarctica contains 90% of all the snow and ice in the world.

However, Antarctica is not just a large, cold desert. It is rich in mineral deposits. Coal and minerals such as copper, iron, uranium, gold and platinum have been found there. Many oil companies have carried out surveys in the area for oil but it is not clear whether they have found any there, or, if they have, whether it could be successfully exploited in the conditions in and around that continent. Cold as it is, Antarctica is also rich in animal life but because of the temperature, the animals and birds found there are aquatic e.g. seals and penguins. The sea is also particularly rich in krill, which are small shrimp — like creatures that whales, seals and penguins feed on.

Captain James Cook on a voyage of ex­ploration from England was the first per­son to cross the Antarctic Circle. This was in 1773. In 1837, a Frenchman, Dumont D'Urville, sailed in Antarctic waters, as did Charles Wilkes from the USA in the fol­lowing year. But the first to set foot on the continent was an Englishman, James Clark Ross, who landed on Victoria Land in 1841. The Ross Sea is named after him.

At the end of the 19th century, interest in Antarctica grew, so that an increasing number of expeditions set out to explore the continent. The explorers came from many countries, including Sweden, Belgium, Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand. In December 1911 the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen became the first person to reach South Pole. His team crossed from the coast on skies with their supplies on sledges, pulled by dogs.

By the beginning of the Second World War in 1939, many countries had made claims of ownership on parts of Antarctica. These were based on either geographical nearness or on rights resulting from discovery. Among the countries claiming territory were Ar­gentina, Australia, Chile, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Norway. In addition to disputes over territory, there was also some discussion over fishing and whaling rights in the area, which involved other countries as well.

The scientific experiments and expeditions in Antarctica of the International Geo­graphical Year of 1957 aroused a lot of interest in the area and also a great deal of concern over its future. In 1961 the Antarctic Treaty was signed by 12 nations and the number of signatories had risen to 3 1 by I 984. The clauses of the treaty state that Antarctica should be used for peaceful purposes only. Scientific work carried out in Antarctica had to be done in accord­ance with United Nations scientific agreements, and scientific observations and results were to be exchanged and made public.

Over the past few years, there has been increased concern over the effect of all types of human activity on Antarctica. Shipping accidents cause oil spillages, while scientists and tourists leave their rubbish.

Environmental groups say that some governments have been building airstrips too close to areas where penguins nest, thus disturb­ing their habitat and threatening their breeding. The regulations state that all rubbish should be removed from Antarctica when scientific research has been completed, but plastics, rubber and batteries have been found, all of which are dangerous to the wildlife and to the land.

The future of Antarctica is still in doubt. Will it be preserved as an unspoilt wilderness for future genera­tions or will it be changed for ever through mining and other human activity?

Самостійна робота № 14

Текст: Flood forecasting

Лексико-граматичні основи перекладу та вправи: Числівники. Багатофункціональні слова.

Ex.1 Read the theoretical material and fulfill some exercises.

Числівники (The numerals)

Числівник — частина мови, яка означає кількість і порядок предметів при рахунку . Числівники діляться на кількісні { ordinal numerals).

Кількісні числівники визначають кількість предметів при рахунку і відповідають на питання How many? - скільки'.' Наприклад, one, two, three,etc..

Порядкові числівники визначають порядок предметів і відповідають на питання – which котрий? Наприклад, the first, the second, the third, etc.

Числівники бувають: прості (simple), похідні (derived ) i складені (composite) До простих числівників відносяться one, two, hundred, the first, the second, etc.. До похідних відносяться числівники, які утворюються за допомогою суфіксів –teen, - ty, -th: fourteen, seventy, tenth, etc..

До складених відносяться числівники, які складаються з десятків і одиниць, а також числа, які мають одиниці вищих розрядів (сотні, тисячі, мільйони); four hundred, six hundred and twenty-five, three thousand five hundred and seventy-two. В реченні числівник може бути:

а) підметом: Two were absent from the lecture.

Двоє були відсутні на лекції.

б) додатком: How many articles did you publish in that magazine? I publish five..

Скільки статей ви надрукували в тому журналі - Я надрукував п'ять.

в) означенням: The second part of performance begins at 8 0’clock.

Друга частина вистави починається о 8-й годині. Кількісні числівники (cardinals numerals)

від 13 до 19 - числівники до 10 +-tееn Запам'ятати 13 – thirtееп

15 – fiftееn

18 - еightееn

2) десятки - числівники до 10 + -tу Запам'ятати 20 - twentу

30– thirtу

40 - forty

50 - fiftу

3) дефіс (-) між десятками і наступними одиницями

27 – twenty - seven

4) аnd - в складених числівниках перед десятками

835 – eight hundred and thirty-five, 2,046 – two thousand and forty – sіх, 3,582,377 – three million five hundred and eighty-two thousand three hundred and seventy-seven

5) числівники hundred, thousand , million не мають закінчення – s у множині, якщо перед ним стоїть інший числівник: two hundred, three thousand, four million,

iноді ці числівники можуть вживатися з закінченням - s , коли означають неозначену

кількість сотен, тисяч, мільйонів. В цьому випадку вони є іменниками, а наступний за

ними іменник вживається з прикметником оf:

Мillions of books were published in our countгу.

Мільйони книжок були надруковані в нашій країні.

Перед числівниками hundred, thousand, million ставиться неозначений артикль або числівник оnе: а(оnе), hundred, a (one) million

При позначенні кількісних числівників цифрами кожні три розряди ( справа наліво)

відокремлюються комою.

2,535; 8,376,003

Порядкові числівники (ordinal numerals)

1) Порядкові числівники утворюються: кількісний числівник + th Запамятайте 1-й - first

2-й – second

З-й – tthird

5-й – fifth

8-й – eighth

9-й – ninth

І2-й- twelfth

20-й - twentieth

2) вживаються з означеним артиклем Мау іs the fifth month of the year. Травень - пятий місяць року.

This article is better than the first.

. Ця стаття краще, ніж перша.

3) вживається з неозначеним в значенні « інший», « ще один» A second man came into the room.

Інший (ще один) чоловік зайшов у кімнату.

4. у складених числівниках тільки останній розряд має форму порядкового числівника 1245 – one thousand two hundred and forty-fifth

5. дата, рік

1981 - 19-81 піпеtееп еіghty-опе

1960 - 19-60 піпеtееп зіхtу

1900 - 19-00 піпеtееп hundred

1905 - 19-05 піпеtееп hunded and five - nineteen o[ou] five

2006 - 20-06 twenty о [оu] sіх

4.02.1983 – the fourth of February, nineteen eighty-three

February 4, 1983 – February the fourth, nineteen eighty-three

6) при позначенні параграфів, частин книг Тhe first рагt = раrt опе -перша частина

Тhe twenty-first pagе = раgе 21 - двадцять перша сторінка

7) для позначення номерів будинків, кімнат, розмірів одежі та взуття вживаються кількісні числівники

She is in classroom 40 . Вона знаходиться в cороковій аудиторії .

Ореп the book at pagе 50. Відкрийте книгу на п’ятдесятій сторінці .

Дробові числівники( fractional numerals)

1) простий дріб числівник/знаменник = кількісний числівник/порядковий числівник

1/2 = a (one) half;

1/3 =- a (one) third

1/4 = 1)а quarter; one quarter 2) a fourth, one fourth

!/25 = (а) оne twenty-fifth

2/3 = two/thirds

3/4 = three fourths, three quarters

2 !/4 = two and a quarter ( a fourth)

2) десятковий дріб

• ціле число відокремлюється від дробу крапкою ( а не комою, як в українській мові), кожна цифра читається окремо, крапка читається роіnt; 0 (нуль) читається nought [по:t] ( в Америці 0 читається zего)

• якщо ціле число дорівнюється нулю, то воно не читається.

0.2-роіnt two, o[ou] point two, nought point two, zero point two

15.25 – fifteen point two five, one five point two five

0.03 – роіnt nought three

0.43 – роіnt four three, point forty-three

2.76 – two point seven – six

Багатофункціональні слова

(it, one, there, that, for but, after, before, since, as, rather, than) та їх переклад.

В науково-технічній літературі часто використовуються багатофункціональні слова, тобто слова, які мають різні функції й реченні.

Fог вживається:

а)сполучник так як

We shall go to the lecture on mechanics, for it seems to be interesting..

Ми підемо на лекцію з механіки, так як вона, здається, буде цікавою,

б) прийменник ( за, для, на, на протязі, щоб ~ інфінітивний зворот з прийменником - for)

The flare will burnt for approximately 3 miutes.

Сигнальна ракета буде горіти приблизно протягом трьох хвилин.

Pistons for small engines are generally made of cast iron.

Поршні до_малогабаритних моторів звичайно виготовляються з чугуну

The smallest electric voltage is sufficient for the electrons to be set in motion..

Достатньо найменшої електричної напруги, щоб електрони рухалися.

Аftег вживається:

а) сполучник (після того як)

After the boiling point has been reached adding heat to the liquid no longer raises its temperature.

Після того як досягнута точка кипіння рідини, додавання тепла більше не підвищує її

температуру.

б) прийменник ( після)

After the experiment it has become clear that when the vibration dies down the intensity of the second diminishes.

Після досліду стало ясно, що коли вібрація завмирає, зменшується інтенсивність звуку

в) прислівник (згодом, потім, пізніше)

Тhe principles of flight of bodies heavier than air developed by Lomonosov have been widely used after.

Принципи польоту тіл важчих за повітря, розроблені Ломоносовим, широко

використовувались згодом.

Веfоге вживається :

а) сполучник (перш ніж)

Веfore vapours are released to the atmosphere, they are passed successfully through a mechanical dust catcher..

Перш ніж пари виходять в атмосферу, їх з успіхом пропускають крізь механічний пилоул овлювач.

б) прийменник (перед, до)

Тhe amount of energy before and after the transformation is always the same. Кількість енергії до і після перетворення завжди одна і та ж.

в) прислівник (перш ніж, раніше)

Тhe researchers have never known such scientific theories before. Винахідники раніше ніколи не знали таких наукових теорій.

Аs - вживається як:

а) прислівник (як, в якості)

This arrangement is adopted as being more economical.

Цей пристрій використовують як більш економічний

б) сполучник (так як, коли, в той час як, як)

As a current flows through a conductor, it sets up a magnetic field in the neighbourhood of the latter.

Коли електричний струм проходить крізь провідник, еін викликає магнітне поле навколо

нього.

LEXICAL - GRAMMAR EXERCISES

Ex.2 Complete the following sentences:

1. Three plus nine is... .2. Seventeen plus thirteen is... .3. Five plus forty is... . 4. One hundred mines twenty-three is... .5. Ninety-one mines sixteen is.. .

Ex.3 Write the following numerals in English:

8, 97, 63, 47, 23, 18, 33, 11, 58, 13, 87, 19, 55, 12, 1, 10, 100.

Ex.4 Translate the following quantitative and ordinal numerals in English:

один-перший, два-другий, три-третій, одинадцять-одинадцятий, вісімдесят-вісімдесятий, дев’ять-вісімдесят дев’ять.

Ex.5 Read the following fractions:

a) 1/3 2/3, ¼, ½, 3/5, 4/5, 2/5, 5/6,

b) 0.25; 0.08; 1.35; .6; 25.005; 13.75; .125; 4.68; .05; 0.97.

Ex.6 Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the meaning word – as.

As:1.так як,2. в той час як, 3. оскільки, 4.стільки-стільки, 5. як, 6. по мірі то як.

1.As the time passed, stone tool were substituted by metal one.2. There are two kinds of transformations, which are known as physical and chemical changes. 3. The synthetic materials of which the house in made can be relied upon as they are of high quality. 4. Every second the Sun sends into space as much energy as mankind consumed during the whole period of its existence. 5. the outer and inner walls of the house are as thick as 40 centimetres. 6. At present plastics as well as metals are widely used in various branches of industry.

Ex.7 Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the meaning words – after, before:

1. Before discovery of the structure of atomic nuclei, it was thought that there existed two general types of forces explaining all natural phenomena: electrical and gravitational forces. 2. The word “ helium” come from the Greek word “sun” because element was discovered in the sun before it was discovered on the earth. 3. After it become clear that some mistake had been made in the calculation, the experiment was stopped. 4. After a period of discharge the battery can be restored to its original condition by supplying energy to it from an outside source. 5. For days or weeks after the reactor has been turned off, the radiation intensity is so great inside that repairs there are never attempted.

Ex.8 Translate the following sentences, pay attention to the different meanings: because – тому що, бо; because of – через, завдяки тому що, із-за

1. Because our sense of temperature is not very reliable temperature measurements of our body must be made with accurate thermometers. 2. The energy, which an object has its motion because is called kinetic. 3. Because of the relative complexity of plasma accelerator configurations, experiments are needed to determine the design of suitable plasma drive devices. 4. The problem of power generation from fusion reactors is very difficult because of he difficult of containing plasma.

Ex. 9 Translate the following sentences, paying attention to - for:

1. A separate consideration of individual elements is in a very real sense artificial, for each element occurs in a building only for some definite purpose and gains both its practical and its aesthetic meaning from its relation to other elements. 2. Probably a majority of the houses to be built in the near future time, will be designed for rental or sale. For this it is impossible to make so striking a functional analysis as in the case of a house designed for one particular family.3. If such loads exist, their effect should be carefully studied and provided for. 4. For methods of computing reactions, see chapter on “Reactions”.

Ex. 10 Point out which of the sentences “to have, to be “are used as Modal verbs. Translate the sentences.

1. Draglines are operated where excavation has to be carried out at some distance from the machine. 2. Many basic principles are still to be established. 3. The time is nearing when international agreements will be drafted to govern the design and operation of nuclear vessels. 4. If practical answers are to be found and the factor of safety is to be put on a firm calculable basis a large number of complicated problems will have to be solved. 5. Care should be used to obtain an ample amount of light in buildings in which men are to work. 6. The drawings show how the materials are to be incorporated into the structure, the specifications state the quality and the methods, which are to be employed.

Ex. 11 Read the following paragraphs of the text and define their main idea in writing.

FLOOD FORECASTING

Forecasts for main-stream points are based on upstream forecasts routed in a successive downstream manner. Routing is the name given to the process of determining the timing and magnitude of the flood wave at successive points along a river. The flood wave, as displayed in the hydrograph as it moves downstream, is subject to delay depending on its rate of travel, and to attenuation, because of the action of channel storage. At the same time, flood waves discharged by the tributaries are formed, but may or may not .synchronize with the main-stream flood. The technique adopted by the forecaster is to express the discharge at any point as a sort of weighted average of the prior discharges at the upstream gages. For those gages far upstream the weights may extend over a long period of time, but for those close at hand the period may be brief.

For major rivers the size of the Mississippi there is time to wait until runoff upstream is well under way and the tributaries have begun to crest. As these crests may occur from one to several weeks ahead of that on the lower river, it is no longer necessary for the forecaster to depend on rainfall data. Instead the upriver crest stages may be used to formulate a forecast for a downriver point. Because his description is nearly as good as one could write now, we will let E. Belgrand describe the method as he developed it for the River Seine in France a century ago. «The relation that exists between the quantity of falling rain and the height of the resulting flood is more complicated, because it depends on a multitude of different elements: the nature and the structure of the ground, its state of dryness, and the temperature. Accordingly it is generally not from the measurements of rain, but from those on the small rivers of the upper part of the basin, that the forecast of the floods is made. The relationship to establish between the variations in level of the principal course of the water and of the small tributaries is, after all, simplified by the scientific principle of permeable and impermeable soil».

In 1854 Belgrand established forecasts of the floods of the Seine at Paris about three days in advance on the basis that it was "sufficient then, with a small number of well-chosen observations to have a consistent relationship between the rises of the small tributaries and those of the river. Therefore, in order to forecast the maximum rise, one ought to establish a relationship between the variations in level of the great course of the water and the hydrologic phenomena, which take place in the impermeable soils up the river. The relationship between the rising of the principal course of water and the rising of the small rivers in the impermeable soils was obtained in a purely empirical manner: from a list of a great number of floods one arrives by repeated trials at a rough formula, which on cont e tries to express as simply as possible". We have seen, therefore, that the modern contributions to the forecasting of floods are largely technical: 1) advances in hydrologic knowledge, and 2) advances in communications for collecting basic observations in the source areas of the floods.

Ex.12 Write out from the text and translate the words and word-combinations connecting with the flood forecasting

Ex.13 Find in the text the English equivalents of the following words and word-combinations:

Upstream, downstream, tributaries, accordingly, permeable, dryness, timing, ahead, simplified, contributions, trials, consistent, the quantity of falling rain, the height of the resulting flood, impermeable soils, a purely empirical manner/

Ex. 14 Find the correspondence:

Вимірювання, встановлений, стосунки, спостереження, переваги, джерела, прогноз, залежати, приймати, замість, рівень, таким чином, грунт, науковий, можливий, явища, гідрологічні знання.

Самостійна робота 15

Текст Chornobyl nuclear accident. It is twelve years after the world’s worst nuclear disaster.

Лексико-граматичні основи перекладу та вправи: Складнопідрядні речення (додаткові, означальні)

Ex.1 Read the theoretical material and fulfill some exercises.

Підрядні додаткові та означальні речення

Підрядні додаткові речення ( object clauses ) виконують функцію додатка до дієслова або прикметника в головному реченні. Вони приєднуються до головного речення сполучниками that, if, whether, lest, сполучниками займенниками та прислівниками who, whose, what, which, where, when, how, why, а також безсполучниковим способом:

We did not know what had happened. - Ми не знали, що трапилось.

Підрядні означальні речення ( attributive clause ) виконують роль означення до іменника або займенника головного речення і з’єднуються з ним за допомогою сполучних займенників who, whose, which, that, сполучних прислівників where, when, а також безсполучниковим способом:

The woman who lives here has gone shopping. - Жінка, яка тут живе, пішла в магазин.

Підрядні означальні речення поділяються на обмежувальні ( limiting ), класифікуючи ( classifying ) і описові ( descriptive ).

Обмежувальне означальне речення уточнює, про який саме предмет іде мова. Іменник вживається з означеним артиклем:

The house in which we live is in the centre of the town. – Будинок, у якому ми живемо, знаходиться в центрі міста.

Класифікуючи означальне речення вказує, до якої групи або класу належить предмет, позначений іменником. Іменник вживається з неозначеним артиклем.

A polygon which has three sides is called a triangle. – Многокутник, що має три сторони, називається трикутником.

Ex.2 Put 10 + 10 questions to the texts and translate them.

Chеrnobyl nuclear accident

The 26lh of April is a special day for the people living in Ukraine and regions situated not far from it. On that day in 1986 a horrible accident occurred at the Chornobyl nuclear station. There was a nuclear reactor explosion which had far

reaching consequences.

Contamination by various radioactive isotopes, such as cesium-137, iodine-131, strontium-90, plutonium-239 and plutonium-240, from the Chornobyl nuclear accident have affected the air, land, and water of Ukraine and vast areas beyond it. Recorded but unreported radiation levels in Kyiv a few days after the accident exceeded the maximum allowable levels by a hundredfold.

Press report claim that significant number of deaths by radiation sickness, elevated levels of stillbirth and birth defects and highly elevated rates of childhood leukemia, have occurred in the affected areas. Those claims and other concerns are being researched by host of scientists and medical professionals from Ukraine and other countries.

Recent detailed field studies indicate that significant areas of agricultural and forest land of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia will remain unsafe for human occupancy and food production for upwards of eight thousand years. Nevertheless, thousands of people who were evacuated after the accident have returned to live and farm in these highly contaminated regions. Thus, the Chornobyl region, in fact, has become something of a living laboratory for the study of nuclear contamination.

A number of foreign countries offered specialized medical equipment and drugs for biological elimination of isotopes of different chemical elements from human body. Later on thousands of children were taken to other republics of the former USSR and abroad for corresponding medical treatment.

Such accidents like that in Chornobyl must never be repeated again, because the very existence of millions of people may be under the threat. The safe maintenance of nuclear power stations depends on proper work and sufficient technical knowledge of every worker and engineer.