The Commonwealth
For centuries Britain had a powerful empire with overseas dominions and colonial possessions. This was the largest empire ever known. The Union Jack flew over many lands. The British empire was its greatest in about the 20s, when it included approximately 25% of the of the world ‘s population and more than a quarter of the world’s land territory.
After World War I, the British Empire began to turn itself into the British Commonwealth – an association of independent states that still have political and other links with each other. Commonwealth members include some of the richest and poorest nations of the world community and also some of the largest and smallest. Their people are drawn from practically all the world’s main races, from all continents and from many faiths.
Britain participates fully in all Commonwealth activities and values it as a means of increasing international understanding, stability and peace, and contributing to more balanced global economic development.
The origin of the Commonwealth lies in the gradual granting of self-government to the older-established British colonies in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa (South Africa ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth in 1961), where European settlement had occurred on a large scale. Their fully independent status in relation to Britain was legally formulated in 1931. The modern Commonwealth became possible when it was agreed in 1949 that India, on becoming a republic, could continue to be a member. Since then, almost all of Britain’s former dependent territories have attained their independence and have voluntarily joined the Commonwealth.
Politically, the Commonwealth now means very little. However, some quite important links survive. There are frequent meetings of heads of Government, specialized conferences of other ministers and officials, expert groups, and discussions at international conferences. These meetings allow prime ministers and presidents to discuss international issues and decide on collective initiatives. Common views on matters of international concern are formulated.
Trade and cultural exhibitions and conferences of professional and unofficial medical, cultural, educational and economic organizations are other ways in which frequent contacts are made.
Some people believe that the Commonwealth has now served in purpose and should be disbanded. For the newly independent countries it helped ease the painful transition from Empire by promoting special arrangements for trade and aid. But this transition period is now over. The future of the Commonwealth rests its value as a unique association of people of all races and cultures where world affairs, local problems, and shared experiences can be discussed.
Moscow State University
An important part in the development of higher education in Russia was played by Moscow University which was founded in 1755. It was not by accident that Moscow was chosen as the place for the first Russian University. Moscow was situated in the centre of the country and it was easier for students to come there from all parts of the country, besides, life in the older capital was cheaper than in St Petersburg.
Moscow University was opened on April, 26 (May, 7) 1755 in the three-storied building where the State Historical Museum is situated. But it was too small for the University and several houses in Mokhovaya Street were bought the next year. In 1786 the sum of 125,000 roubles was allotted by the government to build a new University building. It was built by a famous Russian architect Kazakov in Mokhovaya Street.
The University had three faculties: philosophy, law and medicine. The philosophy faculty was considered to be preparatory and study there was obligatory for all students. Philosophical, natural and philological disciplines were studied for two or three years. Special attention was paid to “the history of the Russian Empire”. After finishing the courses at the philosophy faculty, students could choose to study either law or medicine. At the law faculty students were taught civil law, commercial law, military law and law of the sea. Each student could work independently according to an individual plan of studies which was based on the general university curriculum and he could study the disciplines which he had chosen in any order he wished. The University also contained a library, mineralogical museum, a “natural” museum, an anatomical theatre, a chemical laboratory, an astronomical observatory, etc. In accordance with the University Charter debates among students were organized. They were supervised by professors and “all lovers of the arts and sciences” were welcome to these debates. The best students were awarded gold and silver medals at the end of each year. After graduation they were sent abroad to perfect their knowledge.
All lectures were given in Latin. Professor Popovskiy who gave lectures on philosophy and literature was the first to propose giving lectures in Russian stating that “their exist no idea that can’t be properly explained in Russian”. But lectures in Russian were not allowed until 12 years later in 1767.
The number of students at the University was small. Thus in 1755 there were only 61 students. Later their number gradually began to grow. Now at the University there are 16 faculties where more than 30,000 students are given instructions by about 10,000 teachers. (After “The History of Moscow”)
OXBRIDGE
Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest and most prestigious universities in Great Britain. They are often called collectively Oxbridge to denote an elitеrian education. Both universities are independent. Only very rich and aristocratic families can afford to send their sons and daughters to these universities. Mostly they are former public school leavers.
The tutorial is the basic mode of instruction at Oxford and Cambridge, with lectures as optional extras.
The normal length of the degree course is three years, after which the students take the Degree of Bachelor of Arts (B.A.). Some courses, such as languages or medicine, may be one or two years longer. The students may work for other degrees as well. The degrees are awarded at public degree ceremonies. Oxford and Cambridge cling to their traditions, such as the use of Latin at degree ceremonies. Full academic dress is worn at examinations.
Oxford and Cambridge universities consist of a number of colleges. Each college is different, but in many ways they are alike. Each college has its name, its coat of arms. Each college is governed by a Master. The larger ones have more than 400 members, the smallest colleges have less than 30. Each college offers teaching in a wide range of subjects. Within the college one will normally find a chapel, a dining hall, a library, rooms for undergraduates, fellows and the Master, and also rooms for teaching purposes.
Oxford is one of the oldest universities in Europe. It is the second largest in Britain, after London. The town of Oxford is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 911 A.D. and it was popular with the early English kings (Richard Lion Hearted was probably here). The university’s earliest charter is dated back to 1213.
There are now twenty-four colleges for men, five for women and another five which have both men and women members, many from overseas studying for higher degrees. Among the oldest colleges are University College, All Souls and Christ Church.
The Cambridge University started during the 13th century and grew until today. Now there are more than thirty colleges.
On the river bank of the Cam willow trees weep their branches into the water. The colleges line the right bank. There are beautiful college gardens with green lawns and lines of tall trees. The oldest college is Peterhouse, which was founded in 1284, and the most recent is Robinson College, which was opened in 1977. The most famous is probably King’s College because of its magnificent chapel, the largest and the most beautiful building in Cambridge and the most perfect example left of English fifteenth-century architecture. Its choir of boys and undеrgradates is also very well known.
The University was only for men until 1871, when the first women’s college was opened. In the 1970s, most colleges opened their doors to both men and women. Almost all colleges are now
mixed.
Many great men studied at Cambridge, among them Desiderius Erasmus, the great Dutch scholar, Roger Bacon, the philosopher Milton, the poet , Oliver Cromwell, the soldier, Newton, the scientist, and Kapitza, the famous Russian physicist.
The universities have over a hundred societies and clubs, enough for every interest one could imagine. Sport is part of students’ life at Oxbridge. The most popular sports are rowing and punting.