Lecture 1

Subject of phonetics

Pretending to voice or sound phonetics as academic disc. Which is concerned all the aspectsof speech. A broader view of it`s subject will share the phonetics … has largerly dependent on other ling. And non. Ling sciencies such as psychology, physiology, sociology, acoustics, literary criticism, esthetics, logic.

Phonetics has practical hz in linguistic, speech propology, communication engeneering, as students in linguistics se have the understand the mechanismofspeech production and perception, the linksbeteewnthe subform and meaning, theways sound systems are structured and how they operetta in speech + need of cultural awereness of some forms, in the world languages generally and in … language in particulary. Special importance ХУЙХУХЙХУХЙХУХЙХУХЙ M.PH is a scientific displ. Drawing on both the sciencies and humanities.

1821 – Lemmings

1852 – first observations of the vocal cords were made

1887 – international Phonetic Assosiation(IPA) started publications in phonetic magazine, thisass. Stated phonetic symbols forsounds of dist. Phonetic. Lang. The greatestphonetician is DanielJones – the founder of theIPA and auther of the classic Ebglish pronouncing dictionary

Phonetics displaces most links with other phon. Sciencies: conn. With grammar lexicology stylystics is exercise by 1. System of living pizda. One of themost important phonetic phenomena sound interchange is mznifestation of the links between phontiv and grammar. For instance – this connection

Maby words depend on the sound form for their identity, Ph. Is also connected with grammar… smts.

Intonation shows predication.

Ph. Is also connected with lexicology. It only due to the presence of stress??

Connected with stylistics through its pitch component, serving to convey different attitudes to the author and speaker. If the auth. Wants to make the word prominent or logically. Epmh. He use the itallics of graphons. Анометапия - + reputition tech. through sounds words and parallelcontruction which servethebasis ofrhytm rhime sllitiration and assonance.

Synestethisia involves a mixing of the senses in ways they reinforced.

Phonetics. Has two main divisions 1. Study how the spoken functions as the code.2. study of the substance of this code. Phonetics is concerned with a physical substance of sounds, of its phones. But there is also rthe abstract level of sounds, a level at which they are abstract entities, we can call this mental or abstract reality.

15.02

1. The speaker`s brain – articulatory phonetics – psychological stage

2. The speakers vocal tract/speech apparatus – articulatory phonetics – physiological

3. The transmission of the speech – acoustics -physical stage

4. The listener`s hearing operators/perception operators – perceptual/auditory phonetics – physiological stage

5. The listener`s brain – psychological stage

Smth is produced as we breathe out. The eng. Sounds are harmonic, they are created by the ??? lungs. Iggresive – caractarized by the air stream outwards of the body .Some languages employ intaking motion – like clicks.

The name processes:

1. Initiation process – in the lungs

2. Phonation

3. Articulation

4. Oro-nazal process-involving the velum and the nazal resonator

Speech is impossible without the following mechanisms^

1. Powerful mechanism – diaphragm

2. Lungs

3. Tracheia

4. Glottis

5. Pharynx

6. Nasal cavity/mouth cavity

The voice producing mechanism consists of the vocal cords. Besides of the vocal cords there are two more sources:

1. Turbulent noise

2. The impulse wave – the complete construction to the flow of air is suddenly broken

Simultaniusly:

The TS part. In voiceless constrictive(schelevoi) sounds

The IMP SOURCE used to produce voiceless plosive consonants, voiceless sounds

The two sources are used to produce voice constrictive sounds, voiced stops,

The resonator mechanism comprises the following four resonators:

1. Mouth res/

2. Nasal resonator

3. Laringal and phoringal resonators

4. The obstructive mechanism( tongue (apex, front of the tongue, back of the tongue), lips, teeth, soft palate, hard palate, alveolar ridge)

When the soft palate – velar closure

The deep of the tongue(apex) may occupe the following positions(уклады языка):

1. Apex may be raised against the upper teeth range (apical)

2. May remain stationary passive and lowered

3. The sound articulated with the blade thus the dorcal position is formed

4. The apex may be … of the alveolar range

5. The cocuminal position скат альвол – the slope of the alveolar ridge

The difference between the vowels nad consonants is based on the following criteria:

The precence or absence of the obstruction to the airstream ib the hz cavity

The character of the muscular tension – (concentrated or difused)

The force of exhalation – сила потока выдыхаемого воздуха

The width or size of the opening of the mouth resonator – по степени раствора рта

On this basis consonants may be defined … the exhaling force is rather strong, the muscular tension is vocalized on a point of articulation and there is air obstruction to the air stream. Which may be a four different types:

1. Complete

2. Incomplete

3. A combination of the two

4. Intermittent – переменная преграда Russian р-рь – раскатистый многоударный – trilled vibrant

Consonants are classified on the following principles:

1. Only one division

2. The members of the different classes should have nothing in common (mutually exclusive)

3. Should be as simple as possible. The whole and all the members must be equal, no member must be left out

4. A division should be orderly. E.g. a genus should be divided into species, immediately subordinate to it.

Hz hz on this basis there is a following criteria:

1. Work of the vocal cords and the force of the exhalation

2. Active organs of speech and place of obstruction. 3 subdivisions:

3. The manner of articulation. Subdivision:

1. Voice or noise prevalence (continuants – can be prolonged during the substate of the articulation, semivowels, liquids – плавные согласные(laterals),approximants – consonants, produced with a very small production of the air stream

Glottis – голосовая шель

The mechanisms:

1. Resonator mechanisms

2. Obstructive mechanism

Lecture 3 22.02.

Sh w

1. Place of articulation, active speech organ

2. Manner of articulation/noise production, the type of the obstruction

3. Work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation

4. ???

=>

1. oral consonants, w – bilabial one, sh – palatal-alveolar sound

2. both sounds are constrictive ones, sh isfricative, w is sonorant; w – round narrowing, sh – flat narrowing

3. both sounds are semi-glide

4. двуфокусные звуки – bicentral sound, with a front secondary focus – sh, with a back secondary focus – w.

1.The position of the softpalate(welure)

2. The system of English vocalism

The vowels cannot easily bedescribed in terms of the articulation, instead the are classified=ed on termsof abstrartc vowel space which is represented by figure called the vowel cuadrolateral

The vowel trapesian/ the vowel chart

This figure bears a relation though not an exact one to the position of the tongue in vowel production. The first linguist who tried to classife vowel sounds for all lang was ,,,

He divided the system of 8 cardinal vowels – a set vowels used as an international standartof reference the basis if this system is physiological. The positions of this cardinal vowels were copied from x-ray photographs. A working classification of thevowels were done by Russians bu the following classification:

1. Postion of the lips/degree of lip rounding. The main effects:

• To enlarge an oral cavity

• To deepen the pitch to increase the resonance of this cavity

• To diminishthe size of the opening

The rounding(for English vowels) tensed to be more more worked(?) to closer tongue position and back tongue position

1.When the bulk of the tongue means backwards it is normally the back cut of the tongue which is raised high to the soft palate. Back vowels produced on this manner

2. when the body of the tones moves forward the front part of the tongue raised to the roof – front vowels

3. in the production of so called central or mixed sounds – the tongue remains flat it`s central part is ??? raised between hard palate and the velure

2. Vowels of narrow and growth variations

3. Character of the vowel end – energy discharge – (усечённость неусечённость)

Length of the vowel depends on the postion of the vowel in the word: initial, medial, end

Is affected on the number of syllables, on the tone the word bears

4. ???

5. The stability of the articulation and relative stability size and shape of mouth articulator

-monophtongs

-diphtongs

-diphtongized vowels u and

!!!!!!!!Constrictives, affricates. Acclusives.!!!!!!!!!!!!

Lecture 4, 29.02.

1. Pressure – presser, - phonological opposition, the basis – type of consonant, place/point of obstruction – s – alveolar, sh – palatal-alveolar, s – bicentral, sh – unicentral,

2. Eat – each – t - alveolar, ch – palatal alveolar,

3. Bird – board – both sounds are long, pure. The difference is in the lip position and the position of the tongue: o is half opened, e: is open vowel.

4. Me – mere, the difference is in the vowel structure, monoPh and diphtongized vowel.

The vowel structure critetia. V. divided:

1. Diphthongs

2. Monophtongs

3. Diphtongized

A diphtong ca be falling or descending, when the nucleus is stronger than the glide. Rising or ascending diphthongs those normally starting with [j], when the glide outways the nucleus in prominence. The ita;ian, Romanian. Portugese diph. And the level diphthongs – equal in level and duration.

The diph. May be divided into closing and centring, according to the articulatory character of the …

The triphtongs could be looked on of being composed of the 5 closing diph. With the neutral vowel added on the end.

Summarizing, the given classification are precise from the articulatory view point, simpled for the purposes of the ling. Analysis andreflect more or less exactly the diff. between the elements between vocal and consonantal systems.

Nevertheless, the description of vowels for examplefrom the articulatory point of view is not very free from certain shprtcomings, cause the quality of the vowel wholly depends on the shape of the tongue and theshape of the pharynx. Thus, analyst or a linguist has to turn to acoustic analysis to measure and describe the vowel more objectively.

The acoustic description of the sounds, acoustically vowels are musical tones (the word vowels is derivative of voice), but vowelsare not nececerally connected with thevoice. For example. Pr. Zinder claims that if organs of speech are adjusted for the production of the vowel, it canbe produced without voice.

Such vowels exists inall languages, as for ex. Schwa- vowel ina voiceless terminal postion after voicelss stops. Voicelsss vowels are also articulated when it is uttered in whisper. Acoustically diff. vowels posses different different sets of tembral characteristics. Or they are characterized by different formants. That is concentrations of energy in certain frequency regions on the spectrogramm.

A formant – is a group of overtones, corresponding to a resonating frequency of theair in the vocal /tract. Vowels are mainly charact. By formant 1 and formant 2.

Formant one correspond roughly to the traditional open-closed dimension, e.g. a low formant-1 vowel vowelmust be closed

Formant two -\\- to the front-back dimension of vowels. E.g. a vowel with a front vowel two mustbe a front vowel. A low f-2 vowel is expected to be a back one. More like o or a:. Frequency values vary from one speaker to another, thus we can produce different sounding vowels, possessing different voice qualities, those we might call creeky, or murmur or harshm or breathy.

Prosody or intonation can also be analysed acoustically.

1. Pitch – fundamental frequency – частота основного тона, отражает вибрацию голосовых вибраций по всей длине, обертона/ harmonics – только когда вибрирует лишь часть, измеряется в герцах

2. Intensity of the sound depends on the amplitude, it measured in decibels.

3. Duration - - is the quantity of time, during the same vibration continue. Normally it is measured in milliseconds.

Pitch, loundness

4. Спектр гласного - spectrum

07.03.12

The phonem:

1.types of notation

2. thedefinitions of phoneme and allophone, the types of allophones.

3. main trends in/of the phoneme theory

4. the functions performed by the phonem

TYPES OF NOTATION. Transcription is the method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and transcription way. 2 types:

-phonetic/phonetic proper/allophonic transcription

-phonemic transcription

The phonetic data isenclosed in squared brakets, slund breakets enclose the phonemic transcription.

In the former sounds aresymbolized on the basis of their articulatory properties, regardless of the ling. Func. They perform in the ???. In the latter the??? Are symbolized ??? which have a ling. Func. Phonetic trans. Is sometimes called “narrow transcr”, the other type – broad transcription. These transcriptions serve to the very different entities. Ph.trns. represents a sequence of concrete physical articulation, phonemic reflects a sequence of abstract functional units. Thus reflects particular theoretical point of view. There are several possibleways of transcribing the sound phonetically. For example the contrast between the long vowel [I:] may be reflected in the different ways. The symbol with one dot will show that the duration will be diminished, but it is not the length, it is the quality of the vowel which differentiates the twowords. In any type of trans. Each distinguishable sound is given its own symbol. The whole set of phonetic symbols is known as phonetic alphabet. Different terms of symbols are used in the two types:

-upper and lower symbols

-plus and minus

-dots, doubledots. Wavy bars above the line of print and suchlike.

Indexes (upper):

m’(small j)

m (n)

m(1)

ПЕЧАЛЬПЕЧАЛЬПЕЧАЛЬПЕЧА

PHONEME. Thera different opinions about its definition. ??? 4 main classes:

1. The mentalistic, or phycholigical view, phoneme – isan ideal mental image, or the target at which the speaker aims. The sound produced deviates ??? partly because the ideal repetition of thesound is impossible, and partly due to the influence exerted by the neighbouring sounds. According to this conceptions, allophones are varying materealization of it. The founder of this theory бодуен де кортуне, define the phonemas an image of the sound and, a m?? which speaker seems to reproduce. It is not possible to establish such ideal sounds, therefore this approach is an idealistic one cannot be inrestrictedly accepted by lingustists-> Leonard blumfield rejected this theory and preferreing to take aphysial viewof the phonem

2. The physical view by Daniel Jones. Jones defines the phoneme as family of related sounds. These sounds could such satisfy certain conditions: - should besimillatiry, shiuldbe related incharacter, - no membed of the family could may occure as the same phonetic contest as the ???. The extreme of this approach exludes all reference to the ?? criteria. Thisapproach is regarded as vulgary matearilsitc, since it used the phoneme ??? witout any reference to its abstract or fuctional meaning

3. Nikolay Trubetskoy, Jacobson, Blumfield viewed the phonem as the minimal sound unit, bu wich meanings can be differenciated, the so called

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4. Abstract view or the abtractionalconception of the phoneme. – Sossure, Луис Ельмслев. Regards the phoneme as the perceptionally independent unit. The majority of linguists agree that the phoneme has distsnctive function of Ph. In speech, some prefer physical features some psychological. Schreba defined the phonem as a real independent unit, which manifest itself in the form of realizations(allophoneme). The phoneme is a dialectical unity of the following aspects:

• Ph. Is material, real and objective

• Abstraction and gereralization

• It is a fuctional unit

It serves to perform the following functions:

• The constituted function

• The distinctive function

• The idetificatry function

Linguists state that phoneme is real, because it is exists in the form of speech sounds, it exists independently; 2. It is abstraction, because the speaker makes it abstract from its concrete realization; 3. The phoneme is a functional unit because it performs a number of fuction to form a one word or a word form different from another one.

F1 -Phonemes serve as building material for higher language units – words, etc.

F2 - Phoemes are capable for distinguishing words

F3 – Chains of phonemes serves to identify words and thus to decode the meaning thus being transmitted

The definitions of phoneme vary greatly from one linguist to another.

Schreba: phoneme –

Vasil`ev: phoneme – dialectical unity. Because all its 3 aspects determing one another being thus interdependent. The Phoneme is a mininmal abstract linguistic unit, realized in speech in the orm of speech sounds. It is opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of phonemes and words.

The distinctive function of the phoneme is the principle function the phoneme performs. Without it the phoneme will be non-existent. Subdivisions: word-, morpheme-, sentence- distinctive one. The schwa vowel realized in phoneme [ir]? Denotes the doer of the action and may be opposed to the phoneme [e], ??? which is a variant of the adjective forming morpheme.

Dreamer vs. dreamy.

Sleeper vs. sleepy.

Bath – path. Light – like

Sometimes the opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole sentence. This function could be perform ed indirectly and directly. Indireclty thorugh the word distictiive functions with the help of word opposition:

He saw his cub – He saw his cup

Directly, without words being diferenctiated as vocabulary items in citation form:

He bought some paper – He bought some paper. The partitive meaning – the indefinite meaning

Give me some apples – Give me some apples. Дай мне немного яблок – дай мне каких-нибудь яблок.

The Phoneme is material, real and objective – its is realized in speech in the form of speech sounds. Phoneme !косые скобки, фонемическая транскрипция! – d –

Different realizations of [d] – labialized – dwell, dental – lead this, lateral plosion(release), nasal release(plosion), may heve no orderable release (plosiveless),

Another sound will display the diaphonic relation – [d] may have affricate release – дз – in Liverpool dialect, Cockney. Irish dialect.

Основной аллофон – the typical allophone, the subsidiary allophones – второстепенный аллофоны, may also be subdivided:

• The positional allophones – are those which are used in definite positions traditionally according to the all orthoepic norms rather than influence of the neighbouring sounds. Two positional allophones nelong the clear and dark (vilure) realizations of the [L] whose location is strictly determanied by the position of the letter, representing the vowel.

• The combinatory allophones – are those which exist due to the influence of the adjacent sounds. – dental variants, labialized,

Accommodation/адаптация – the same.

The phoneme is abstraction – the sounds perfomong similar function turned to be considered the same by native speakers. In other words, native speakers abstract themselves from all distinctions or all distctions between allophones and all pronunciation nuances. Because these differences has ??? in other terms native speakers do not diiferenciate allophons of one of the same phoneme, therefore linguists have good grounds to calin that the phoneme is an abstract unit, since it is an abstraction from the speech sounds. The articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme ( the bunch of functionally relevant distictiove features) – the invariant of the phoneme [d] may be described as occlusive, fourlingual and lineese??. All the articulatory features forming this ivariant are called relevant fetures. The articulatory features which do not serve to distinctive meaning are called irrelevant. E.g. if d will be replaced by [z], if its occlusive articulation will change for the constrictive one we have two different words – breed, breeze. In English it is impossible to oppose the aspirated [p] to its non-aspiriative correlate in the same environment for meaing differentiation. In other languages for instance in Syrian aspiration may count as a distctive or relevant feature.

Distictively irrelevant features may also be of two kinds, Genuianly incidental or redundant features, which may be present or absent in an allophone, or indispensible or concomitant features, those without which a phoneme cannot exist at all. E.g. aspiration and absence of voice are incidental featurs which may be lacking in certain phonemes, but no allophone of phonemes л, ш ж, щ are possible without articulatory obstruction.

28.03.2011